翻译《开放大学课程LDT101_2：开发并拓展你的思维技能》
Extending and developing your thinking skills
开发并拓展你的思维技能
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Time: 6 hours
Level: Introductory - 时间：6小时
- 水平：介绍
Introduction
介绍
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Introduction - 介绍
- This Unit is designed to take you on a journey of understanding. You will be introduced to a variety of thinking skills and ways of extending and developing your thinking. You will begin by looking at...
- 本单元的目的是令你有个大概的认识。将向你介绍一系列思维技能和拓展、开发思维的方法。你的学习将开始于……
1 Overview
1 概述
- 1 Overview
- 1 概述
- This Unit provides an introduction to thinking skills and ways of extending and developing your thinking.
- 本单元介绍思维技能和扩展、开发思维的方法。
2: Understanding the importance of thinking skills
2 理解思维技能的重要性
- 2: Understanding the importance of thinking skills
- 2：理解思维技能的重要性
- We would like to start by asking you to consider some fundamental questions about education.
- 我们想要你先考虑一些有关教育的根本性问题。
3: Different kinds of thinking
3：不同类型的思维
- 3.1: Thinking in a higher gear
- 3.1：高级思维
- While we can all think, it is important to recognize that the thinking skills we have looked at so far are not all required or equally valued in academic work. Common to all subjects and levels is the...
- 虽然我们都能思考，但必须承认迄今为止我们使用的思维技能并不全是学术工作中必需或值得的。所有课题和级别所共有的是……
- 3.2: Looking at the thinking a further educaiton course involves
- 3.2：考虑进修课程所涉及的思维
- A further education course will provide many practical opportunities for developing thinking. These will be integrated into activities such as: reading texts; doing in-text activities and self-assessment...
- 进修课程将未开发思维提供许多实用的的机会。这些机会将纳入这些活动中去：阅读文本，进行文字活动以及自我评价……
4: A thinking disposition and the process of development
4：思维风格与其开发过程
- 4: A thinking disposition and the process of development
- 4：思维风格与其开发过程
- In order to make effective use of opportunities for developing your thinking, you need to develop a thinking disposition as well as thinking skills.
- 为了充分利用开发思维的机会，你除了开发思维技能之外还需要开发思维风格。
5: Other people
5：其他人
- 5: Other people
- 5：其他人
- Other people can be one of the best tools for developing your thinking. Engaging with others, for example in debate and discussion (either face-to-face or at a distance) is how we most effectively develop...
- 其他人也可成为你开发思维的最好工具之一。与他人交流，比如辩论与讨论（无论是面对面还是远程）是如何有效地开发我们……
6: Questions
6：问题
- 6: Questions
- 6：问题
- Thinking itself is nothing but the process of asking and answering questions.
- 思维本身并没有什么，只是提出和回答问题的过程而已。
7: Giving structure to thinking
7：给思维一个架构
- 7: Giving structure to thinking
- 7：给思维一个架构
- Two common thinking problems are: a feeling of not being able to 'see the wood for the trees', and difficulty in being logical and orderly. The key to solving them is being able to think about ideas and...
- 两个常见的思维问题是：不能做到见微知著的感觉，以及难于逻辑化条理化。解决这两个问题的关键在于能够考虑到思路和……
- 7.1: Hierarchies of ideas
- 7.1：思路的分层
- A useful way of giving sense and structure to ideas can sometimes be to see them in the form of a hierarchy. At one end is the ‘big picture’ (e.g. general context, principles, theories, ideas, concepts)...
- 一个为思路给予判断力和结构的有效办法有时可以通过分层的形式看到它们。一头是“大局”（比如，一般的语境、原则、理论、思想、观念）……
- 7.2: Other ways of structuring thought
- 7.2：结构化思想的其他办法
- Distinguishing between generals and particulars can help you in reading, note taking and writing for your course. But, looking at things in a hierarchical general-particular way is only one approach to...
- 分清细节与大体之间的区别可以帮助你在课程中阅读、记笔记以及做作业。但是，从大体到细节的方式来看待问题只会导致……
- 7.3: Systematic approaches
- 7.3：系统方法
- Having a systematic step-by-step process for thinking about certain academic tasks can be particularly useful so that everything is done as efficiently as possible.
- 采用系统化的、递进的程序考虑一定的学术任务可以特别有用，因此任何事情都可以完成的尽可能有效。
- 7.4: Visual tools
- 7.4：视觉化工具
- Organising thought can be assisted greatly by the use of visual tools. These can include diagrams, mind-maps, tables, graphs, time lines, flow charts, sequence diagrams, decision trees or other visual...
- 利用视觉化工具可以极大的帮助整理思绪。包括图表、思维导图、表格、图形、时间线、流程图、决策树以及其它视觉化……
- 7.5: Mind-maps
- 7.5：思维导图
- Mind-mapping can be a particularly powerful visual tool for shaping thought. The basic principle here is to note down the central topic or idea in the centre of a piece of paper and work outwards adding...
- 思维导图对于修整思绪是一个非常有力的视觉化工具。在这里基本原则是在一张纸的中央记下中心议题或理念然后逐渐增加……
8: Analysis, argument and critical thinking
8：分析、论证和批判思维
- 8: Analysis, argument and critical thinking
- 8：分析、论证和批判思维
- In this section, we are going to look in detail at analysis and argument. Analytical thinking is a particular type of higher order thinking central to much academic activity. It is concerned with examining...
- 在这一节，我们将深入了解分析和讨论思维。分析思维是一种对于多数学术活动至关重要的高级思维。它注重调查……
- 8.1: Balanced argument
- 8.1：均衡论点
- In many instances, we are not just concerned with arguing a particular case or taking a particular point of view, we are interested in looking at all sides of an issue and producing a balanced argument....
- 在许多情况下，我们不能只就某一特例或特定视角而争吵，我们关注问题的各个方面从而形成一个折衷的观点……
- 8.2: Broadening perception
- 8.2：拓宽认知
- Particular perspectives and points of view underpin speaking and writing. Being successful at many academic tasks, including balanced argument, often requires us to be conscious of and to try to break...
- 特定的观点和看法决定了如何写作和发言。要在包括平衡论点等许多学术任务上取得成功，往往需要我们意识到并尝试……
- 8.3: Academic arguments
- 8.3：学术论证
- You have looked at some examples of everyday arguments, now look at a short example of an academic argument.
- 你已经看过日常论证的例子，现在来看一个有关学术论证的简短例子。
9: Putting it all together
9：整合在一起
- 9: Putting it all together
- 9：整合在一起
- We have covered a wide range of aspects of thinking, particularly those concerned with clear and critical thinking. At this stage, you may find it useful to consider how ideas like these can be put together...
- 我们已经涉足思维的很多方面，特别是那些有关清晰或批评的思维。在这个阶段，你可以发现对于考虑如何将各种思路整合在一起有用……
10:Further reading and sources of help
10：进一步的阅读及帮助资源
- 10.1: Further reading
- 10.1：进一步的阅读
- There are many relevant books available from libraries and bookshops. Here are some suggestions to start you off.
- 在图书馆和书店有许多相关书籍。这儿有一些帮助你开始的建议。
- 10.2: Sources of help
- 10.2：帮助资源
- The internet
- 互联网
Introduction
介绍
This Unit is designed to take you on a journey of understanding. You will be introduced to a variety of thinking skills and ways of extending and developing your thinking. You will begin by looking at why thinking skills are important in education, and what kinds of skills are valued. You will then move on to some practical strategies and ideas for further activities and reading.
本单元的目的是令你有个大概的认识。将向你介绍一系列思维技能和拓展、开发思维的方法。你首先将了解为什么思维技能在教育中很重，以及什么类型的技能是有价值的。然后为了进一步的活动和阅读，你将接触到一些实用的思路和对策。
Learning Outcomes
学习结果
After studying this Unit you should:
学习本单元之后你将：
- feel more confident about studying
- 对于学习体会到更多的自信
- understand any grades you are given and how to improve them
- 清楚自己的水平并知道如何提高
- be able to overcome problems with reading and writing
- 能够战胜阅读和写作方面的问题
- be able to make the most of the opportunities a higher education course provides for developing your skills
- 能够抓住绝大多数机会，为开发你的技能而提供的高等教育课程中的机会
1 Overview
1：概述
This Unit provides an introduction to thinking skills and ways of extending and developing your thinking.
本单元介绍思维技能和扩展、开发思维的方法。
But why do you need to do this?
但是，为什么你需要这些？
Take a few moments to reflect on your reasons for looking at this Unit and ways in which you hope it will help you.
花几分钟时间反思一下你学本单元的理由和你希望它在哪一方面对你有所帮助。
Perhaps you thought you would find it useful? Or maybe you have particular worries or concerns about thinking that have made you want to look at this issue in more depth. Looking at thinking skills is something that is not always easy to make the time to do or realise is important. However, we hope that this Unit will help you to understand that extending and developing your thinking skills is one of the most important and rewarding challenges of higher education. We hope that it will help you to recognise that many of the difficulties and frustrations of study are underpinned by problems with thinking. The processes of growth and change in thinking that you will experience as you progress in your studies can also be difficult, but are worth the effort. We particularly hope that you will find ideas that will be of practical benefit.
也许你认为你会找到它的用处？或者对于某些思维你有特别的担忧或担心，那些思维令你想更深入地考虑问题。关注思维技能并不是一直都容易让行动或理解的时间变得重要。然而我们希望本单元可以帮助你理解如下事实：扩展和开发你的思维技能是高等教育最重要和最具价值的挑战之一。我们希望它能帮助你认识到学习上的诸多困难和挫折都是由于思维的问题造成的。你也许很难在你学习的进步中体会思维进步和变化的过程，但值得去努力。我们特别希望你能找到能够得到实际利益的思路。
This Unit has been designed to lead you on a journey of understanding. It begins with seeing why thinking skills are important in education, and what kinds of skills are valued. It then moves to some practical strategies and ideas for further activities and reading.
本单元的目的是令你有个大概的认识。你首先将了解为什么思维技能在教育中很重，以及什么类型的技能是有价值的。然后为了进一步的活动和阅读，你将接触到一些实用的思路和对策。
You may find the ideas presented here are useful preparation for more in-depth development of your skills in other areas such as learning how to learn, and reading and note taking.
你可以在这里找到一些思路，为在其他领域——比如如何学习、阅读和做笔记更深入开发你的技能打下有用基础。
You may want to work all the way through this Unit, or just dip in and out. It is a resource for you to use in whatever way you find best helps your learning. As thinking and learning is most effectively developed through active involvement, we have included lots of activities. So, have a pencil and paper on hand and be prepared to think.
你也许想全面学习本单元，或者仅想有所涉猎。不管你用什么方式寻求学习上的最佳帮助，它都是一份资源。积极参与是开发思维和学习最有效的途径，我们准备了大量的活动。因此，拿起笔和纸，准备思考。2: Understanding the importance of thinking skills
2：理解思维技能的重要性
We would like to start by asking you to consider some fundamental questions about education.
我们想要你先考虑一些有关教育的根本性问题。
Activity 1
活动1
Note down your responses to the following questions.
写下你对以下问题的回答。
- Why do people become university students?
- 为什么人们要上大学？
- What do you see as the purpose of higher education?
- 你如何看待高等教育的目的？
- How do you think your answer(s) to the previous question would be different from the answers that the government, employers or university teaching staff might give?
- 如果你上一题的答案可能与政府、雇员、大学教职员工给出的答案不相同，你怎么想？
Discussion
讨论
There are, of course, no set answers to questions of this sort. People and organisations have their own reasons and views. People give a range of reasons for becoming Open University students. For example, to improve job prospects, to explore and gain knowledge of a subject area for interest, to develop themselves generally, to have contact with others. Perhaps your responses to the second question were the same as to the first. Or maybe you mentioned more general skills and attributes that can be gained such as confidence, communication or interpersonal skills.
当然，这里没有为这类问题设置答案。每个人或者团体都有它自己的理由和看法。人们有各种理由成为开放大学的学生。例如，改善就业前景，探索和增加感兴趣领域的知识，充分完善自我，接触其他人。也许你对第二个问题的回答和第一个问题是一样的。或者也许你想要得到诸如信任、沟通、交际等更多常规技能和特性。
Did you include extending or developing thinking skills in any of your responses? If you did, how important was this in relation to other reasons you listed for study and higher education? The ability to think, particularly the ability to think critically, is often cited as one of the main purposes of education by those involved in delivering higher education today. Look at the following quote and compare it with your answers.
在你任何一项回答中是否包含了开发与拓展思维技能？如果是，那么在你所列的关于学习和高等教育的诸多理由当中，这个理由有多重要？思维能力，特别是批判性思维能力，往往被那些现今涉足提供高等教育的团体当作主要目的。看看以下引述，并与你的答案作比较。
Traditional aims of higher education
传统高等教育的目的
- adopting a distinctive way of thinking about concepts, evidence and theories
- 对于观念、证据和理论采用特有的思维方式
- taking a distanced, critical stance towards subject matter, assumptions and explanations
- 对于课题的问题、假设和解释采用客观的、批判的态度
- tackling issues systematically, logically, and effectively
- 有条理的、有逻辑的、有效的处理问题
- examining the adequacy of evidence and checking alternative interpretations of it
- 调查足够多的证据并审查对证据的其他解释
- demonstrating a thorough understanding of complex, abstract concepts within the discipline
- 依照规律来演示对于复杂、抽象概念的深入理解
- writing clearly and cogently, following appropriate academic styles and conventions
- 文风清晰有力，遵守适当的学术风格及规范
- being able to set and solve problems by applying concepts and techniques appropriately
- 能够利用适当的概念和技巧来确定和解决问题
(Entwistle, 1994)
（恩特维思特，1994）
Activity 2
活动2
Can you suggest why thinking skills are considered to be so important in education today?
你能说说为什么在当今教育思维技能被看得如此重要？
Discussion
讨论
Education can be seen as the main way of developing individuals and society. There are a range of possible reasons you might have suggested for thinking being an important area to develop. Perhaps your reasons were related to economic factors, or perhaps social, cultural or educational factors. A strong argument these days is that knowledge is central to our information age and movement towards a knowledge-based economy. The creation and use of knowledge depends on our ability to think. Good thinking could be viewed as empowering for individuals and society. Education can be seen as a process of joining a community in a subject. So you may become, for example, a social scientist or mathematician by learning the thinking styles, language and other characteristics of that community.
教育可视为个人和社会发展的主要途径。你可能有许多理由证明思维是最需要开发的领域。也许你的理由与经济因素、或者社会、文化或教育因素有关。当今一个有力的论据就是知识对于信息时代和基于知识经济的活动是非常重要的。对知识的创建和使用取决于我们的思维能力。好的思维能力可以视作个人或社会的应有的能力。教育可以看作是通过课题加入一个团体的过程。因此通过学习相应的思维方式、语言和团体其他特性，你可能会变成，比如，一个社会学家或者数学家。
Your reasons for studying and what you see as the purpose of higher education will influence your thinking, styles of study and other aspects of learning.
你学习的理由和你理解的高等教育的目的将会影响你的思维、学习方式以及学习的其他方面。
3: Different kinds of thinking
3：不同类型的思维
3.1: Thinking in a higher gear
3.1：高级思维
While we can all think, it is important to recognize that the thinking skills we have looked at so far are not all required or equally valued in academic work. Common to all subjects and levels is the concept of higher and lower order thinking skills. Higher order skills are considered to be more complex than lower order skills. The triangle model (Figure 1) provides a useful way to visualise the relationships between some of the key intellectual skills valued in education. The complexity of the skills increases from the base to the top of the triangle.
虽然我们都认为，必须承认迄今为止我们所见到的思维技能并不都是学术工作所需要的，或有足够价值的。为所有课题和水平共有的是高阶或低阶思维技能。高阶技能被认为比低阶技能更复杂。三角模型（图一，中文版 ）为直观显示教育中有价值的某些关键智力技能之间的关系提供了一条有用的途径。技能的复杂性从三角形的地步向上逐渐增加。
Figure 1: Levels of intellectual skill — the thinking triangle
图一：智力技能的层次——思维三角形
View description阅读描述文字
Although the skills in Figure 1 are arranged in a hierarchical way, they are all important. Much of the thinking we do involves a mixture of skills at different levels. We develop and use them simultaneously, for example, when we are solving problems and analysing case studies. One of the key aims of education is to extend and develop higher order thinking skills - to develop thinking at a qualitatively higher level, to move into a higher gear.
虽然图一中的技能是按层次排放的，但他们都很重要。我们很多思维都使用了不同层次的多种技能。我们同时发展并使用这些技能，比如在我们解决问题并分析研究个案时。重要教育目标之一是开发和拓展高级思维技能——在质量方面用高标准开发思维，并提升到更高阶思维水平。
When you are studying, it can be helpful to recognise the words people use to describe thinking at these different levels.
在你学习的时候，它可以帮助你理解那些在不同层次上描述思维的文字。
Activity 3
活动3
Try making a list of verbs that might describe or demonstrate thinking at each level of the triangle shown in Figure 1.
试着写出一系列动词，来描述或演示图一当中三角形各个层次的思维。
Discussion
讨论
Here are some examples.
这儿有一些例子。
| Evaluate | judge, appraise, choose, rate, assess, estimate, value, measure, criticise |
| Synthesise | formulate, teach, design, develop, re-define, propose, create |
| Analyse | distinguish, differentiate, calculate, debate, relate, compare, experiment, contrast, examine |
| Apply | demonstrate, schedule, operate, sketch, employ, use, practice |
| Comprehend | restate, identify, discuss, locate, recognise, review, explain, tell, clarify |
| Know | recall, define, state, list, repeat, name, recount, present, find |
(Adapted from Latimer and Noble, 1996)
| 评价 | 判断，鉴定，选择，定级，估价，估计，估算，度量，批评 |
| 综合 | 制订，教授，设计，开发，重定义，计划，创造 |
| 分析 | 辨别，区分，辩论，关联，比较，尝试，对比，检测 |
| 应用 | 展示，安排，操作，概括，雇用，使用，实施 |
| 理解 | 重述，识别，谈论，定位，认可，审视，解释，讲述，阐明 |
| 知道 | 回忆，定义，陈述，列出，重复，命名，详述，呈现，发现 |
（改编自 Latimer 与 Noble, 1996）
3.2: Looking at the thinking a further educaiton course involves
3.2：考虑进修课程所涉及的思维
A further education course will provide many practical opportunities for developing thinking. These will be integrated into activities such as: reading texts; doing in-text activities and self-assessment questions; listening to tapes; watching videos and TV programmes; making notes; doing assignments and reflecting on assignment feedback; doing exams; participating in tutorials; attending day schools, workshops and residential schools; participating in self-help groups; talking to a tutor; planning studies.
进修课程能为开发思维提供许多有用的机会。这些机会都遍布以下活动中：阅读文章、基于文字的活动以及自我评价问题集、听磁带；观看录像和电视节目；注解；做功课并考虑对功课的反馈；考试；参与辅导；加入走读学校、工作间和住宿制学校；参加自助团体；与导师谈话；做学习规划。
Reflecting on the thinking of such a course involves can be useful in understanding which skills it has been designed to help you acquire and what will be looked for in assessments. As a starting point, take a look at some of the thinking skills in an assignment question or activity from your course.
考虑到这些课程所需要的思维，有助于理解那些被设计用来帮助你学习的技能、将在你的功课中用到的技能。作为开始，关注作业问题中或课程活动使用到的某些思维技能。
Look at the assignment questions in Activity 4. Look at the tasks they set and consider the thinking skills involved. You may find it useful to highlight or underline relevant words or phrases.
关注活动4的功课问题。注意这些任务设置或考虑到的相关思维技能。你可以通过高亮或下划线找到相关字句。
Activity 4
活动4
Example 1 - from an Open University Level 1 maths and computing course
例1——来自开放大学第一级数学和计算科学课程
Don't worry if you are not a mathematician - the point of this example is to understand the idea of looking at a question to see what thinking skills are expected. You are not expected to understand or be able to answer this question.
如果你不懂数学也不必担心——这个例子的目的在于理解这样一种思路：通过关注问题来了解应该用哪种思维技能。你不必弄懂或能够回答这些问题。
I have lent a member of my family £1500 and it is being repaid at the rate of £75 a month. As this is a family loan, no interest is being charged.
我向家里人借了1500块钱，利息是每月75块钱。由于这是家庭贷款，利息就不按复式计算了。
- (i) How many repayments will there be to clear the loan?
（1）还清贷款一共要还多少钱？
- (ii) If bn is the balance still owing at the end of the nth month (assuming the payment is made just before the end of the month) write down the recurrence system for bn .
（2）如果bn是在第n个月后所欠余款（假设在月底之前还款），写出bn的递归系统。
- (iii) Find the closed form for bn and use it to calculate the number of payments that will be needed to pay off the loan.
（3）找出bn的闭型，用它计算还清贷款还需支付多少钱。
Example 2 - from an Open University Level 2 psychology course
例2——来自开放大学第二级心理学课程
Discuss the models of memory and consider their usefulness in real life situations.
讨论记忆的模式，考虑在真实生活中的作用。
Discussion
讨论
To answer Example 1 successfully requires particular knowledge and understanding. For example, how to work out repayments on loans, what special terms like 'b' and 'recurrence system' mean. The terms 'find' and 'calculate' indicate that the ability to apply this knowledge to examples is being tested.
要成功回答例一需要专门的知识和理解。比如，如何计算出贷款的还款金额，像“b”和“递归系统”这些专业词汇的含义是什么。词汇“发现”和“计算”意味着正在尝试将知识运用到例子中的能力。
In Example 2, the process word 'discuss' suggests that you need to explain, give different sides of an issue, consider implications and so on. To answer this question, you need to know and understand the theories, and be able to apply and analyse them. You also need to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses.
在例二中，过程用词“讨论”建议你解释、给出问题的不同方面、考虑其含义等等。要完成这个问题，你需要知道并理解相关理论，并能够应用和分析他们。你也需要评价其优劣。
These examples illustrate an important general point - that learning at university (whatever the level of study) is not just about remembering and recalling information and facts. More sophisticated thinking is expected. You will find that different courses will make different intellectual demands depending on the nature of the subject and the level of study. As you move up the levels of study, the intellectual demands will increase. You will usually be required to engage in more higher order thinking.
这些例子说明了一个很重要也很常见的观点——在大学学习（不管是什么程度的研究）不仅仅是记住和回顾资料与事实，需要更老练的思维。依据课题的性质和研究的程度，你会发现不同的课程有不同的智力要求。当你提高研究的难度，智力要求也会增加。你会更频繁的进行更高层次的思考。
As the meanings of words can be open to interpretation, it can be helpful to discuss assignment titles with your tutor or fellow students, whatever your course.
4: A thinking disposition and the process of development
4：思维风格及其开发过程
In order to make effective use of opportunities for developing your thinking, you need to develop a thinking disposition as well as thinking skills.
为了充分利用开发思维的机会，你除了开发思维技能之外还需要开发思维风格。
Activity 5
活动5
The following checklist covers some of the important elements of a thinking disposition.
以下清单涉及思维风格的一些重要元素。
How do you rate yourself?
你如何评价你自己？
| Personal statements | Always | Sometimes | Never |
| I see myself as open and fair minded. |  | | |
| I am curious to find out about things. | | | |
| I am really interested in the content of my course. | | | |
| I relate ideas to previous knowledge, experience and wider contexts. | | | |
| I look for patterns and relationships between things. | | | |
| I like to ask questions and not accept things at face value. | | | |
| I don't rush to make judgements or have opinions on things. | | | |
| I like to look at all sides of an argument or issues before coming to a conclusion. | | | |
| I am persistent and like to get to the bottom of things. | | | |
| I don't like situations where people just state opinions without giving reasons or evidence. | | | |
| I like to find things out for myself and come to my own conclusions on things. | | | |
| I like to be creative and innovative. | | | |
| I take time to reflect on things/my own thinking. | | | |
| I like clarity, order and precision. | | | |
| I think strategically about things. | | | |
| 个人申明 | 始终 | 有时 | 绝不 |
| 我认为自己思想开放且公正。 | | | |
| 我有强烈的求知欲。 | | | |
| 我对自己课程的内容非常感兴趣。 | | | |
| 我思考时会联系以前的知识、经验和广泛背景。 | | | |
| 我在事物之间寻找模式和关系。 | | | |
| 我喜欢问问题，不愿接受事物的表面现象。 | | | |
| 我不急于对事物做出判断或下结论。 | | | |
| 在下结论之前我喜欢考察问题或论点的各个方面。 | | | |
| 我坚持并乐于找到事物的真相。 | | | |
| 我不喜欢这种环境：人们仅陈述观点而不给出理由或证据。 | | | |
| 我喜欢自己探寻事物并独自得出结论。 | | | |
| 我喜欢有创造性的和革新的。 | | | |
| 我花时间反思事情或自己的思维。 | | | |
| 我喜欢清晰、秩序和精确。 | | | |
| 我从战略高度思考问题。 | | | |
Discussion
讨论
We would not be surprised if you had a mixture of ratings in your responses. These characteristics may not all be ones you have needed or wanted to develop for everyday life. However, reflecting and working on the attitudes and behaviours of a thinking disposition may be something you will find helpful to your studies. There are ideas in this unit that will help you in some of these areas.
如果你的选择相当凌乱，我们并不感到奇怪。这些特征未必都是在你的日常生活中必须或应该发展的。然而，基于某种思维性格的态度和行为的思考和工作，有可能有助于你的学习。本单元有一些可以在这些领域帮助你的点子。
All students in higher education are encouraged to develop courage and independence in thinking. Starting to study is much like learning in other areas of life. Sometimes, we feel like an outsider who knows nothing compared with the experts in the field. At this stage, knowledge may be seen as something vast and complicated that comes from books and experts, and learning as being about having some of this knowledge transferred to us. We may feel that with all these experts and knowledge around there must be an answer to everything - it is just a matter of finding it. At this stage, we may not have views on things, or feel our views are not legitimate or of any value. Sometimes, we start out with a more confident approach, the views we already have are the right ones and things are straightforwardly right or wrong.
所有接受高等教育的学生都曾被鼓励发展思维的勇气和独立性。开始学习，犹如生命中其他领域的学习一样。有时候，我们感觉自己像一个在这一行什么都不懂的白痴。在这一阶段，知识可以看作是来自书本和专家的庞大而复杂的事物，而学习可以当作把这些知识中的一部分化为己有的一种过程。我们可能会认为所有专家或者知识都有一个标准答案——问题只在于如何去找到它。在这一阶段，我们可能对于事物没有自己的观点，或者认为自己的观点不正确或者没有什么价值。有时候，我们以一种更自信的方法开始思考，于是我们的已有观点变的正确，而事情也直接分出对错。
As we move on and become more involved in our subject, we realise that not everything is known, even by experts. We realise that what counts as valid knowledge depends on the context (because knowledge may change with time or culture). We also begin to realise that there are different views, even if we treat them as equally valid because we do not have the confidence or skills to judge them. Eventually, we may reach a point at which we have engaged sufficiently with our subject and developed the skills and confidence to have our own views based on careful consideration (reasoned judgement, evidence, values). We realise that intellectual development never stops, and that we are part of the process - thus, knowledge is created by us.
随着课题的继续深入，我们明白我们并不是什么都知道，专家也是如此。我们明白知识什么时候正确取决于环境（因为只是会随着时间或文化而改变）。我们也开始明白一件事情可以有很多种看法，由于我们没有信心或能力去判断他们，我们只能对其一视同仁。最终我们达到这样一种情况：我们充分参与到课题当中，发展了我们的技能和信心，有了基于小心论证（判断的理由充分，考虑了其证据和价值）的观点。我们明白智力开发永无止境，而我们自身也是这过程的一部分——从而，我们创造了知识。
Like any change, the journey of intellectual growth can be challenging, risky and painful but it is also extremely rewarding. Reflecting on critical incidents and turning points in our thinking can be a valuable tool for development.
和任何改变一样，智力成长的历程也有挑战、风险和痛苦，但也极有价值。回顾我们思想中的重大事件和转折点，可以成为开发活动的有价值工具。
Activity 6
活动6
Think of an issue or topic from your everyday life about which your thinking has changed and developed. Perhaps something practical like becoming computer-literate, or your thinking on a topical or ethical issue such as fox-hunting, animal experimentation or euthanasia. How did your views and thinking change? What contributed to the change? What was the experience of change like?
对于你生活当中问题或话题的思考，意味着你的思维已经改变或开发。也许对于某些实际问题，像成为电脑专家，或者你思考时事或道德问题比如猎狐、动物实验或安乐死，你的看法和思想是如何改变的？是什么促成了改变？你喜欢什么样的改变？
Discussion
讨论
It is common for people to change their thinking and views. Gaining more information or a particular experience, incident or need can sometimes be a triggering factor. For example, having (or being close to someone who has) a serious illness requiring drug therapies that have been tested on animals may trigger more thinking on this issue and perhaps shed a different light on it.
人们常常改变他们的思维和观点。在某些时候，获得更多信息、特别的体验、突发事件或一定的需求都会成为诱因。举例来说，具有某种严重疾病的人（或与这类病人走得很近的人）所需要的药物疗法已经应用于动物身上，就有可能触发对此问题的更多思考，甚至会对此作出不同的阐述。
Having our established ideas and activities challenged can be uncomfortable. We may feel angry, threatened and want to resist change; or perhaps shocked and sad. Perhaps we experience guilty feelings about previous uninformed views. But, ultimately we will move on and grow as a result of such changes. Like other aspects of our lives and learning, it is important to remember that thinking is intimately connected to our feelings, environment, experiences and other factors. To move on and grow, we need challenge, change and new experiences. So, seek out opportunities to develop - 'Man's mind stretched to a new idea never goes back to its original dimensions' (Oliver Wendell Holmes).
我们可以肯定观念和活动的挑战并不舒服。我们也许会感觉到愤怒和威胁，并试图抵制改变，抑或震惊、悲伤。也许我们会因为自己以前无知的观点而感到内疚。但是，最终我们会因为这些改变而前进并成长起来。正如生活和学习中的其他方面一样，必须记住的是，思维与我们的感觉、环境、体验等因素密切相连。要前进和成长，我们就需要挑战、改变和新的体验。因此，找到发展的机会——“人的心灵一旦接受一个新的观念就再也不可能回到原来的样子了。”（奥利佛·温戴尔·霍尔姆斯）
Remember that, like other skills, thinking improves with persistence, tenacity and practice. Evidence shows that people who are high achievers in their field have strong foundations in the basics, they practise a lot and have usually built up extensive experience over a long period of time. Quotes and mottoes can be a useful tool to help you remember this and keep going. Why not start a collection? Here are a few examples to start you off.
记住，如同其他技能，毅力、恒心和实践可以改善思维。证据显示有卓越成就的人在其领域的基本功方面有着扎实的基础，他们通过长时间的大量实践逐步建立起广泛的经验。名人名言和座右铭可以有效地帮助你记住这个并继续前进。为什么不开始收集呢？这儿就有一些例子。
- Everything is difficult until it is easy.
- 万事起头难，直到不难。
- Achievement is 99% perspiration and 1% inspiration (based on Winston Churchill).
- 成绩是99%的汗水和1%的灵感。（温斯顿·丘吉尔）
- You may be a starter, but are you a finisher? (based on Margaret Thatcher).
- 不怕不会做，只怕不肯做。（玛格丽特·撒切尔）
It can also be useful to recognise that thinking also develops outside study time; it is something you can work on all the time. Ideas often need a while to incubate. Taking a break from study can be a good technique for coping with writers' block or getting the creative juices flowing. Inspirations and good ideas sometimes come at unexpected times. Many highly successful thinkers from a range of fields (including novelists, scientists and inventors) have kept a notebook on hand all the time to reflect on and capture thoughts before they are forgotten. Leonardo da Vinci is one famous example.
它可以让你承认思维可以开发课外学习时间；它可以让你把所有时间都用在上面。思想往往需要一段时间来孵化。对于打开阻塞、获得灵感源泉，中断学习休息一下或许是一个好办法。灵感和好点子有时候不期而遇。各行业诸多非常成功的思想者（包括小说家、科学家和发明家）任何时刻手头都有一本笔记本，抢在遗忘之前回顾和捕捉想法。列奥纳多·达·芬奇就是一个著名的例子。
Activity 7
活动7
Obtain a handy-sized notebook that you can keep with you to note down ideas, particularly those relevant to your study. You could use your notebook to keep a thinking log or diary over the next week or so. You may find it helpful to note down the particular times or places that are most productive for your thinking.
使用一个便携型笔记本你就能够把你的想法记录下来，特别是那些跟学习有关的想法。你也可以每周都利用笔记本写下思想日志或者日记。你会发现它可以帮助你记录下最具生产力的思想的详细时间或地点。
Discussion
讨论
If you think this could fit in with your style of thinking, make a point of always keeping a notebook with you. Remember that everyday life provides many occasions for development. Applying what you have gained in one setting to others is an excellent way of really testing and developing your abilities.
如果你觉得这适合你的思维风格，请时刻记着随身带一个笔记本。记着每天为开发思维提供一些机会。向其他人运用你增加的能力是一个测试和发展你能力的极佳的办法。
Although developing thinking requires effort, it can bring rewards in all areas of your life. Recent scientific studies have shown that 'people who keep their minds alert and engaged age far more successfully than those who do not' (Rice, 1991). Good thinking is valuable in every sphere of life.
虽然发展思维很辛苦，但他可以为你生活的各个方面都带来好处。最新科学研究显示“那些一生保持头脑灵敏和忙碌的人比碌碌无为的人获得更多成功”（Rice 1991）。好的思维在生命中的各个阶段都有价值。5: Other people
5：其他人
Other people can be one of the best tools for developing your thinking. Engaging with others, for example in debate and discussion (either face-to-face or at a distance) is how we most effectively develop our thinking and construct knowledge. This is why many educational institutions encourages, for example:
其他人可以成为你开发思维最好的工具之一。与其他人一起工作，比如与他人辩论或交流（不论是面对面还是远程）是如何最有效的开发我们的思维并建构知识。这就是为什么许多教育机构鼓励合作的原因，比如以下措施：
- dialogue with a tutor in writing (through the assignments)
- 与辅导教师进行书面对话（通过作业）
- participatory learning methods such as group activities in tutorials
- 在接受辅导的前提下参加分享学习活动比如小组活动
- self-help groups.
- 参加自助团体
We would encourage you to seek out and make use of opportunities to articulate your thoughts and share thinking with others. You might include friends, family and workmates. Brainstorming and bouncing ideas around with others can be really productive, especially for creative thinking.
我们鼓励你寻找并利用机会来表达你的想法，与他人共享你的思想。你也许会叫上朋友、家人和同事。和他人一起进行头脑风暴和思维跳跃，真的非常有效果，特别是对于创造性思维。
Activity 8
活动8
Brainstorm a topic with one or more other people. To do this, jot down anything connected with the topic as it occurs to you. Don't stop to consider whether or not the ideas are useful at this stage, just get them down.
与一到多个人就一个主题进行头脑风暴。为此，记下你想起的任何与此主题有关的东西。在这一阶段不要停下来考虑这个点子是否有用，只要记下来。
Discussion
讨论
When you have got the ideas down on paper, you can reflect on them and see how they fit together.
当你把思路都写下来，你就可以回顾他们并尝试如何组合他们。
As a student, it can be useful to think of yourself as an academic apprentice. You can learn from others, particularly expert thinkers (those who have already developed the skills you are seeking to acquire), by listening, observing, and engaging in dialogue. Like an apprentice, you will develop most effectively if you recognise and accept the fact that you are a novice and need direct support in developing your skills. Higher education, and a course tutor in particular, could be seen as having a role in coaching you to develop the skills you need. You may find it useful to have intellectual role models.
做为一名学生，在你的学术学习过程中这对你的思维很有帮助。你可以用其他人那儿获得学习——特别是从思考型专家那儿（这些人已经拥有你正在寻求的技能），通过倾听、观察已经不断的对话。就像学徒一样，你将开发最有效的技能，如果你承认并接受这样一个事实——你是新手，你需要在开发技能时得到直接的帮助。高等教育，尤其是课程辅导教师，具有指导你开发你所需技能的作用。你可能会发现它有益于建立智力模型。
Activity 9
活动9
Next time you receive a marked piece of work take time to stop, think and review your work and consider how you can make use of the feedback provided. Think about the following points.
下次你得到对自己工作的评价后，花点时间停下来、思考并反省你的工作，思考如何利用反馈信息。思考以下几点。
- Your immediate reaction to the grading and comments - were you pleased or disappointed? Was it what you were expecting?
- 你对此评定和评语的第一反应——是高兴还是失望？它是否如你所愿？
- What points did your tutor make that relate to your thinking?
- 你导师的哪一点评价涉及到你的思维？
- Did your tutor provide comments that could stimulate and develop your thinking?
- 你的导师提供的评语是否能促进并发展你的思维？
- Do you understand the feedback you have been given and the reasons for the grade awarded? If not, ask your tutor for further explanation.
- 你是否理解了给你的反馈的含义，以及给你如此评定的理由？如果不，请求你的导师作进一步的解释。
- What were the strengths and weaknesses of your work? Did you demonstrate appropriate thinking skills (e.g. understanding, analysis, use of evidence)?
- 你的工作有何优劣之处？你在工作中是否恰当运用思维技能（比如理解、分析、运用证据）？
Make a note of the areas you want to improve on for next time and how you will go about this.
标注出下次将要改进的地方以及如何改进。
Think about your last tutorial, consider the extent to which you engaged with others in ways that developed your thinking. Here are some suggestions.
想想你上次的个别辅导，考虑在开发思维方面与其他合作者之间的差距。这里有一些建议。
- Did you participate in discussion?
- 你是否参与讨论？
- Did you stop and think before making judgements and expressing views?
- 你在做出判断并表达观点之前是否停下来思考过？
- Did you and others provide evidence to support points of view?
- 你和其他人是否提供证据来支持自己的观点？
- Did you listen carefully to others?
- 你是否仔细倾听别人的观点？
Again you can make a note of areas you would like to develop in future.
你可以再一次标注出你打算进一步开发的地方。
Discussion
讨论
Being proactive in seeking feedback on your thinking and making use of feedback that is given (e.g. in tutorials and assignments) will help. Being able to accept guidance and constructive criticism and learn from it are other skills to foster for developing thinking.
6: Questions
6：问题
Thinking itself is nothing but the process of asking and answering questions.
思维不是别的，正是提出问题和回答问题的过程。
(Anthony Robbins)
（安东尼·罗宾斯）
The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing. One cannot help but be in awe when he contemplates the mystery of eternity, of life, of the marvellous structure of reality. It is enough if one merely tries to comprehend a little of this mystery every day. Never lose a holy curiosity.
最重要的是，不要停止质疑。好奇心的存在，自有其理由。每当陷入关于来世、生命以及现实中奇丽的结构这些神秘性的沉思时，一种敬畏之情总会油然而生。每一天，即使有幸能够领悟到这种神秘性中的一小部分，对我们来说就已经足够。千万不要丧失这份神圣的好奇心。
(Albert Einstein)
（阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦）
University students are encouraged to be curious and ask questions. Asking and answering questions is at the heart of high-quality thinking. Questions naturally arise from the desire to know and learn about things. Questions may be the starting point for whole areas of study. For example, 'Why does an apple fall to the ground?' or 'Why did the Roman Empire fall?' are important questions leading to areas of study in science and history. Formulating questions can be a valuable way of structuring thinking and finding a way through learning resources. Questions provide ways to clarify issues, focus attention and explore assumptions.
高校鼓励学生好奇和发问。提出问题和解答问题是高质量思维的核心。问题从渴望对事物的了解和学习中自然产生。问题可能是学习整个领域的起点。比如，“为什么苹果会落到地上？”或者“为什么罗马帝国会覆灭？”就是通往研究科学或历史的重要问题。明确表述问题有益于结构化思维以及寻找结合学习资源的途径。问题为明晰问题、关注重点以及探索假设提供了道路。
You can use questions to develop your skills at the different levels of thinking described in Section 3. Table 1 contains examples of questions for each level.
你可以利用问题在第三节描述的不同思维水平上开发你的技能。表一包含了各层次问题的范例。
Table 1: Questions to develop skills at different levels of thinking
| Level of thinking | Examples of questions |
| Knowledge and understanding | What? Who? When? |
| What is an example of x? | |
| What is meant by …..? | |
| What is another way of explaining..? | |
| Is this an example of …? | |
| Can I describe x in my own words? | |
| Application | How is it used? |
| What does it relate to? | |
| In what situations …? | |
| Analysis | Why? How? |
| What is the reason for ….. ? | |
| What evidence is there to support the conclusion? | |
| What are the causes of …? | |
| How do … fit together? | |
| Synthesis | If x happens, then what next? |
| What does the theory predict will happen? | |
| What are my own conclusions on the basis of the information available? | |
| How does x relate to y? | |
| Evaluation | Is this good or not and why? |
| Is this reasonable or not and why? |
表一：开发不同层次思维技能的问题
| 思维的层次 | 问题范例 |
| 知道与理解 | 什么？谁？什么时候？ |
| 某某的例子是什么？ | |
| 某某的意思是什么？ | |
| 对于某某的另一种解释是什么？ | |
| 这是某某的例子么？ | |
| 我能用自己的话来描述某某么？ | |
| 应用 | 怎么使用它？ |
| 它和什么有关？ | |
| 某某处在一种什么状况中？ | |
| 分析 | 为什么？怎样？ |
| 做某某事情的理由是什么？ | |
| 有什么证据来支持这个结论？ | |
| 导致某某的原因是什么？ | |
| 如何将某某组合在一起？ | |
| 综合 | 如果某某发生了，接下来会发生什么？ |
| 这个理论预言会发生什么？ | |
| 建立在这些可用信息基础上的我自己的结论是什麽？ | |
| 某甲是如何涉及某乙的？ | |
| 评价 | 这是好是坏，为什么？ |
| 这是否合理，为什么？ |
So, for example, if you were considering the Second World War, you might ask the following questions.
这里我们举个例子，如果你考虑的是第二次世界大战，你可能会问以下问题。
- Knowledge - What was the Second World War? When was it? Where was it? Who started it?
- 知道：什么是二战？时间？地点？参战国家？
- Analysis - Why did it happen?
- 分析：为什么会爆发？
- Synthesis - How did the different decisions and events combine to produce this historical event?
- 综合：各种不同的决策和事件是如何共同作用导致此历史事件发生的？
- Evaluation - How reasonable was the original decision to declare war? Was the dropping of nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki an appropriate strategy for ending conflict?
- 分析：最初宣战的决定是否合理？为了结束战争，在长崎和广岛投放原子弹的决策是否适当？
Activity 10活动
10
Select questions from Table 1 above to stimulate thinking on a topic of your choice.
从上面表一中选择问题以促进你在所选主题方面的思维。
Discussion
讨论
Six serving men (Kipling) is a popular rhyme for reminding us of some useful questions.
《六个仆人（吉普灵）》是一首流行的歌谣，可以提醒我们一些有用的问题。
- I once did meet six serving men
- 一次我遇到六仆人
- They served me well and true.
- 他们送给我美与真
- Their names were what and why and when
- 他们叫做何物何时与为何
- And how and where and who!
- 以及何地何人与如何！
One of the most useful of these questions is 'Why?'. Repeatedly asking why can be helpful in probing an issue and getting to the root of a problem. As an example, let us consider the issue of changes in weather patterns that have been occurring in recent years.
在这些问题中最有用的是“为什么？”。反复追问为什么有助于深究问题、探及问题的根本。作为例子，我们来考虑近几年天气变化规律的问题。
- Why are we experiencing changes in weather patterns? Because of global warming (the average Earth temperature is rising).
- 为什么我们会经历气候规律的变化？因为全球变暖（地球平均温度正在升高）。
- Why is global warming happening? Because the amount of carbon dioxide (the main 'greenhouse gas') in the Earth's atmosphere is increasing and increasing the 'greenhouse effect' (i.e. heat is trapped by the atmosphere in the same way that heat in a greenhouse is trapped by the glass).
- 为什么会全球变暖？因为在地球大气层中二氧化碳（主要的温室气体）的数量不断增加导致的温室效应（热量像被玻璃滞留在温室中一样被滞留在大气层中）。
- Why is the amount of carbon dioxide increasing? Because of human activity such as burning fossil fuels, and also the destruction of rainforest areas.
- 为什么二氧化碳数量增加？因为人类活动，如燃烧化石燃料，以及破坏热带雨林区。
- Why is this human activity increasing? Because of social, political and population factors. There is a huge demand for energy from fossil fuels; deforestation is driven by the demand for hardwoods, mined ores, and beef (for beefburgers) in developed economies, along with slash-and-burn clearance activities by local farmers who have little other economic choice.
- 为什么人类活动增加？因为社会、政治和人口因素。有对化石燃料的巨大能源需求，砍伐森林是因为因为木材、采矿甚至牛肉（用于牛肉汉堡）可以发展经济，与那些没有别的经济选择的本地农民的刀耕火种开拓森林活动一道进行。
And so on …
等等……
Activity 11
活动11
Think of a problem relevant to your life. Ask the question Why? repeatedly to explore the issue you have chosen.
思考一个与你生活相关的问题。问个为什么。不断深入你所选择的问题。
Discussion
讨论
We hope you can see how this process moves the response from superficial assumptions and explanations to a deeper level of response. It does, however, only apply within the limits of the subject area. In some cases we do not have the tools to find answers to all the questions.
我们希望你能看到这个过程：响应如何将假设和解释从肤浅变得有深度。这个过程可以但仅可以作用于主题范围内。在某些情况下我们没有办法找到所有问题的答案。
Questions can be particularly useful as a tool to tackle writing tasks like essays. You can set up a series of questions then address them in your writing.
问题是处理随笔之类写作任务特别有用的工具。你可以设置一系列问题，然后在写作中讨论他们。
Activity 12
活动12
Suggest questions you could raise in response to this essay title.
你可以在随笔标题提出对建议问题的回答。
Discuss the problems caused by the development of out-of-town shopping centres and the advantages of regenerating city centre shopping areas as an alternative.
讨论这个问题：开发郊区购物中心以及作为替代方案的新的市中心购物区的优势。
Discussion
讨论
Here are our ideas.
这是我们的主意。
- What are out-of-town shopping centres?
- 什么是郊区购物中心？
- Why, when and how have they developed?
- 他们为什么、什么时候以及如何开发？
- What are the problems caused by their development?
- 在他们开发过程中产生的问题是什么？
- What are city centre shopping areas?
- 什么是市中心购物区？
- Why do they need regenerating?
- 为什么他们需要新建？
- What would be the advantages of regenerating them?
- 新建的优势是什么？
7: Giving structure to thinking
7：给思维一个架构
Two common thinking problems are: a feeling of not being able to 'see the wood for the trees', and difficulty in being logical and orderly. The key to solving them is being able to think about ideas and information in a conceptual and systematic way so that you have ways to structure your thinking. This can involve:
思维的两个通病：没有以小见大的意识，不能逻辑化和条理化思考。解决他们的关键在于能够从概念上和系统上考虑思路和信息，这样你就有办法结构化你的思维。这包括：
- looking at the broader context
- 放在一个更广阔的环境下考虑
- developing mental models and frameworks to hang ideas and information on
- 开发智力模型和框架以容纳思路和信息
- being able to distinguish relative importance and seeing patterns and relationships.
- 可以找到相对重要的部分，看到模型和关联。
The following activity is designed to help you see the power of structuring information and ideas.
以下活动设计用来帮助你了解结构化信息和思路的威力。
Activity 15
活动15
- Read through the following list of words one at a time, then cover it up and see how many words you can remember: leaf, animals, Dalmatian, dogs, tree, living things, plants, mammals, oak
- 阅读下面的单词列表，每次阅读一个单词，然后盖住，看看你能记住多少：叶子、动物、达尔马西亚犬、狗、树、生物、植物、哺乳动物、橡树
- Now look at the words again and see if you can link them together in an order or structure. When you have done this, see how many you can remember now without looking.
- 现在再次查看这些单词，看你是否能以某种顺序或结构把他们联系在一起。当你这样做了，看看你现在你能记住多少。
- Reflect on the difference this makes to understanding and making sense of the information.
- 思考理解和弄懂信息的含义带来的不同。
Discussion
讨论
Were you able to recall many of the words? Did you find a way to link the words together? Did having a structure make the list easier to remember?
你能回忆起多少单词？你找到把这些单词联系起来的办法么？是否有一种结构让这些单词易于记住？
This is the structure we thought of:
这是我们考虑的结构：
原描述引用地址错误
The process of looking for a way of structuring the concepts should certainly have made you think. It is through processes like this that information is retained and recalled, and knowledge and understanding develop. Knowledge, understanding and meaning are not just there for the taking. You have to create them through your own structured thinking. In fact, knowledge is often acquired in the process of doing structured thinking for tasks such as solving problems, making decisions and evaluating arguments. There are many tools and techniques for structuring thinking. What is appropriate will depend on the purpose of your thinking and what works best for you.
7.1: Hierarchies of ideas
7.1：思路的分层
A useful way of giving sense and structure to ideas can sometimes be to see them in the form of a hierarchy. At one end is the ‘big picture’ (e.g. general context, principles, theories, ideas, concepts) and at the other end are particular facts, examples and other details. For example, the concept of living things contains the category of animals and plants. Animals contains the category of mammals, which contains the category of dogs, which contains the specific type of dog called Dalmatian. Each thing is connected to the thing before. Looking for patterns, ways to connect things (even if they may sometimes seem apparently unconnected) and contextualising is at the heart of making sense of information and ideas.
一种有效办法是为概念赋予感情和结构，这在某些时候可以以层级的形式了解思路。一头是“巨幅画卷”（比如常见的环境、原则、理论、概念、观念等），另一头是特定的事实、例子以及其他细节。举个例子，概念上的生物包括动物类和植物类。动物包括哺乳类，其中包括狗类，其中又包括特定的一种狗叫做达尔马西亚犬。每一种事物都和它前面的相关联。寻找联系事物的模式和办法（尽管他们有时候看上去似乎没有联系）并将其放在大环境中去考虑是理解信息和概念的关键之处。
General and particular levels of thought often give shape to written communication.
一般和特定层面的思考一般成型于书面交流。
Activity 13
活动13
Look at this sample text and see if you can identify and distinguish between general ideas and specific details.
阅读范例文本，看看你是否能识别并区分一般概念和特定细节。
Humans as primates
人类是灵长类动物
Humans are primates, a distinctive group of mammals that first appeared more than 60 million years ago and which includes monkeys, apes, lemurs, lorises, and many less familiar species. Most primates live in tropical forests, where they eat leaves, flowers, fruit, soft seeds and small animals such as insects. They have unspecialized teeth and guts and relatively long, flexible limbs that enable them to alternate between several different postures and modes of locomotion, including climbing and leaping. The five toes and finger on each limb are relatively long and flexible, and are tipped with blunt, flat 'fingernails' in place of claws. Primates grip branches and grasp food between the fingers and toes rather than use claws for climbing and manipulating things.
人类是灵长类动物，一种特殊的哺乳类，首次出现在六千万年前，包括猴子、猿、狐猴、懒猴以及许多不熟悉的种类。大多数灵长类动物生活在热带森林，他们在那里吃树叶、花朵、果实、软的种子和小动物，如昆虫。它们的牙齿和内脏没有特化，拥有相对长而灵活的四肢，这可以让它们交替用不同的姿势和方式移动，比如攀爬和跳跃。每一肢的五个趾相对长而灵活，在末端，钝而平的“趾甲”代替了爪子。灵长类利用手指抓住树枝、紧握食物，而不是用爪子攀爬和操纵物品。
(Open University course, U205)
（开放大学课程，U205）
Discussion
讨论
The central general idea here is that humans are primates. The title of the section and the use of bold type for the word ‘primate’ are clues to this. The text adds further particular detail and facts to tell us more about the characteristics of primates. So, primates are mammals, they include monkeys, apes, lemurs and lorises. We are told about how they move in various ways which include climbing and leaping. We are then given further details and facts about this - that they have long and flexible toes and fingers with blunt fingernails instead of claws.
在这里中心议题是人类是灵长类动物。这一节的标题以及粗体字“灵长类动物”都表明了这个。接下来的文字具体而详尽的告诉了我们更多灵长类动物的细节。那么，灵长类是哺乳动物，包括猴子、猿、狐猴以及懒猴。文章还告诉我们他们有多种运动方式，包括攀爬和跳跃。然后我们获得关于运动方式更进一步的细节和资料——他们又长而灵活的手指，手指上有钝的指甲而不是爪子。
Ideas in your course work on a similar principle at all levels. There might be overarching course themes, learning outcomes for specific units, blocks or modules, outcomes for chapters and so on. Your course will provide helpful clues. These may be in the form of summaries (e.g. on and in books), lists of course themes, lists of learning outcomes, assignment questions, in text questions, different sized fonts, use of bold or italic type.
7.2: Other ways of structuring thought
7.2：结构化思想的其他办法
Distinguishing between generals and particulars can help you in reading, note taking and writing for your course. But, looking at things in a hierarchical general-particular way is only one approach to giving structure to ideas and information.
区分一般和特殊有助于你阅读、笔记和做作业。但是，看待事物从一般到特殊的分层之路（不）是唯一一条结构化概念和信息的道路。
Activity 14
活动14
Make a note of some other ways in which ideas and information could be structured.
记下结构化概念和信息的其他办法。
Discussion
讨论
Other ways might be based on chronology, complexity, spatial organisation, positive and negative aspects, pros and cons, familiar and unfamiliar, from top to bottom of an organisational structure. In some cases, the component parts of something work together to form a system, for example arteries, veins and capillaries work together to form the blood circulatory system in the body.
7.3: Systematic approaches
7.3：系统方法
Having a systematic step-by-step process for thinking about certain academic tasks can be particularly useful so that everything is done as efficiently as possible.
使用系统化的循序渐进的流程对于思考一些学术任务特别有用，可以使所有事情尽可能高效率的完成。
For example, the DANCE system (Rose and Nicholl, 1997) is one of many tools for solving problems.
举个例子，DANCE系统（Rose 及 Nicholl，1997）就是众多解决问题工具中的一个。
- D - Define and clarify what the problem really is (sometimes it is not initially clear). What are your goals?
- A - Think of a range of alternative ways of solving the problem.
- N - Narrow down the range of possible solutions to leave the best.
- C - Choose the ideal solution and check what the consequences might be.
- E - Effect action using the best solution.
- D：定义并厘清这个问题到底是什么（有时候问题一开始并不明晰）。你的目标是什么？
- A：设计解决问题的一系列可选方案。
- N：筛选可用方案，留下可用方案。
- C：选择最理想的解决方案，并检查可能产生的后果。
- E：具体实施最佳解决方案。
Activity 15
活动15
Try using the DANCE technique on a problem from your course. Or perhaps a problem from everyday life (e.g. you cannot get to work because you car will not start).
尝试使用DANCE技术来解决你课程中的某个问题。或者解决某个生活中的问题（比如你不能去上班因为你的汽车不能发动了）。
Discussion
讨论
Here is the way we worked through the work-and-car example.
这儿有一个完成工作与汽车案例的办法。
Definition of the problem - The car won't start and we want it to. What is the real problem? After checking things in sequence (most obvious reasons first), the answer is that there is no petrol in the tank.
定义问题：汽车不能如我所愿的启动。真正的问题是什么？然后安装顺序检查可能性（优先最明显的原因），答案是油箱没有汽油了。
Alternative solutions - See if a neighbour has some petrol; go and buy a containerful from the nearest garage; call an automobile rescue service.
可选方案：看看邻居是否还有汽油；去最近的汽修厂买一桶油；呼叫汽车救援服务。
Narrow down solutions - The neighbour is out; either go to the garage or call the rescue service.
缩小范围：邻居外出了；可以去汽修厂或者呼叫救援服务。Choose the best solution - Going to the garage will be quicker and cheaper as our policy does not have home-start cover.
选择方案：去汽修厂更快捷也更便宜因为汽车救援服务并没有面向停在家里的汽车开放。
Effect action - Go to the garage and buy the petrol.
7.4: Visual tools
7.4：视觉化工具
Organising thought can be assisted greatly by the use of visual tools. These can include diagrams, mind-maps, tables, graphs, time lines, flow charts, sequence diagrams, decision trees or other visual representations. The process of making visual representations can itself involve using and developing a range of thinking skills, particularly higher order skills. So, whether you need the resulting product or not they can be worth doing. However, the resulting product can also provide an effective way of communicating your thinking to others. In fact, sometimes it can be very hard not to use a diagram - drawing or referring to a map, for example, makes it much easier to give directions.
使用可视化工具可以更好的辅助组织思路。这些工具包括图表、思维导图、表格、曲线图、时间线、流程图、序列图、决策树以及其他视觉化表示法。制作视觉化表示法的过程本身也需要使用和开发一系列思维技能，尤其是高阶技能。因此，不管你是为求最终结果还是因为这些工具值得你去使用。然而，最终产品也能为你与其他人交流思想提供一条有效的途径。事实上，有时候不利用图表非常困难——举个例子，画出或引用一份地图就比指路要容易得多。
Activity 16
活动16
Find a visual way of presenting one of the examples below or an everyday example. As you do this, reflect on your thoughts and how you feel about the resulting representation.
寻找一条可视化途径来展示下面示例中的一项，或者任何一项生活事例。你做这个可以反映出你的思想和你如何制作最终结果的。
- The process of preparing an assignment.
- Preparing for an examination.
- 准备一项功课的流程。
- 备考。
Discussion
讨论
Here is a flow chart for preparing an assignment:
这儿有一份准备功课的流程图：
7.5: Mind-maps
7.5：思维导图
Mind-mapping can be a particularly powerful visual tool for shaping thought. The basic principle here is to note down the central topic or idea in the centre of a piece of paper and work outwards adding the points which flow from and connect to it. It is particularly helpful for seeing the different levels of thought discussed above. Figure 3 is a mind-map drawn by someone planning to write an essay on memory.
思维导图对于形成思想算得上一个非常有力的视觉化工具。其基本原则是在一张白纸的中央写下中心议题或概念，向外增加节点，每个节点都指向它或被它指向。它对于看清楚讨论中思路的不同层次特别有用。图三是一份某人画的关于记忆的文章的写作计划。（这里有三份中文的思维导图。）
8: Analysis, argument and critical thinking
8：分析、论证和批判思维
In this section, we are going to look in detail at analysis and argument. Analytical thinking is a particular type of higher order thinking central to much academic activity. It is concerned with examining 'methodically and in detail the constitution or structure of something' (Oxford English Dictionary). This includes looking at variables, factors, and relationships between things, as well as examining ideas and problems, and detecting and analysing arguments. Many essay questions require argument. Skills in manipulating content to make a good argument can make the difference between higher and lower assignment grades.
在这一节，我们将仔细研究分析和论证思维。分析思维是对许多学术活动都很重要的一类高阶思维技能。它与研究“事物结构或组织的系统性或细节”有关（牛津英语辞典）。除了研究概念和问题之外还需要研究各种因素、变数以及事物之间的关系，以及对论点的检测和分析。许多文章的问题都要有论据。从内容中整理出好论点的技能就是区分高水平和低水平作业的关键。
You can start to explore the ideas of analysis and argument by using an everyday example.
你可以利用日常生活中的例子来开始尝试分析和论证思路。
Figure 4: Sainsbury's cornflakes
图四：塞恩斯伯里的脆玉米片
Activity 17
活动17
Carefully read and consider Figure 3 - the back of a cereal packet. On a sheet of paper note down the thoughts that you have about this together with your answers to the following questions.
仔细阅读并思考图四——一包玉米的背面。在纸上记下你对此的看法以及对以下问题的回答。
- What was your reaction to doing this activity?
- 你这这种活动的反应是什么？
- What do you think the text was aiming to do?
- 你认为此文的目的是什么？
- Do you feel the writer was successful in achieving what she or he set out to do?
- 你认为作者是否成功实现了他打算做的事情？
- What worked and what did not work?
- 哪些起作用了，哪些没起作用？
Discussion
讨论
How did you feel about this activity? Perhaps your first reaction is that under normal circumstances you would not read the back of a cereal packet. Perhaps you would normally be too busy to read this sort of thing, or would not bother because it is not relevant or of interest. The attention we give to something is dependent on the context. You probably do not have to read and think about cereal packets, but do need to read and think carefully about academic texts.
你觉得这个活动怎么样？也许你的第一反应是，在正常情况下你是不会去读一包玉米包装的背面的。也许你平时只是草草浏览一下这类说明，或者根本就不关心这东西，因为这东西没什么用，或者是你不感兴趣。环境决定我们是否关注某件事物。你也许不会去阅读和思考玉米包装，但你肯定会仔细阅读和思考学术文章。
Did you accept what was written or did the text prompt you to ask questions such as 'What is the purpose of this text?' The initial question 'Why is breakfast is the most important meal of the day?' seems to suggest that the aim of the text might to be to provide answers, perhaps to convince us that breakfast is the most important meal of the day. You might reasonably have expected the text to provide some good reasons for us to be convinced of this. But perhaps after reading it, you decided that the writer's aim was simply to convince you that eating cereals for breakfast is a good thing.
你是否认同文章的观点，或者文章使得你问自己“这篇文章的目的是什么”？一开始的问题“为什么早餐是一天中最重要的一餐？”似乎暗示了文章的目的是要提供答案，可能会说服我们早餐是一摊当中最重要的一餐。你也许有理由期望文章提供一些有力的理由来说服我们相信这个。但也可能在阅读之后，你认定作者的目的仅仅是说服你早餐吃玉米片是件好事情。
If the aim was to show that breakfast is the most important meal of the day, was the text a convincing argument? The writer certainly tells us that 'breakfast refuels the body and helps get the day off to a good start', which could be a reason to support the view that breakfast is important, but is not really one to convince us that breakfast is the most important meal. The writer has not told us why breakfast is more important than lunch, tea, dinner or supper. He or she seems to unquestioningly accept or assume that breakfast is the most important meal. Telling us about hectic lifestyles or the nutritional benefits of breakfast cereals does not tell us why breakfast is the most important meal. The relevance of these points is not clear at all. All in all, this is not a very convincing case for breakfast being the most important meal of the day. If the aim were really to persuade us to eat cereals, would we be convinced? It is hard to know if the information given as facts is correct and relevant to a healthy diet unless you have some knowledge of nutritional science.
如果其目的是要说明早餐是一天中最重要的一餐，文章是否给出令人信服的证据？作者肯定会告诉我们“早餐给身体补充能量，让这一天有一个好的开始”，对于早餐很重要的观点这是一个理由，但并不能让我相信早餐是最重要的一餐。作者并没有告诉我们为什么早餐比午餐、茶点、晚餐、宵夜更重要。她或他似乎毫无质疑地接受或认定早餐是最重要的一餐。他告诉我们忙碌的生活或者谷类早餐的营养价值而没有告诉我们为什么早餐是最重要的一餐。这些观点之间根本就没什么联系。总的来说，对于早餐是一天中最重要的一餐这个观点来说，这并不是一个可以让人信服的例子。如果其真实目标是说服我们吃谷类，我们会信服么？除非你有营养科学相关知识，否则很难知道文章所给信息在现实中是否正确，是否是一种健康的生活方式。
Although this is a simple everyday text, it provides an opportunity to exercise analytical thinking skills. The process of looking at the structure and parts of something in the way we have done here is what we mean by analysis. The text also illustrates the ideas of having a point or a case you wish to prove, and providing evidence and reasons to support it - together these form what the academic world calls an argument. This is very different from the everyday sense of the word, 'having a disagreement'. Here, we have been analysing an argument.
虽然这是一篇简单的日常文字，但它提供了一个运用分析思维技能的机会。研究我们遇到的问题的结构和局部，就是我们所说的分析。这篇文章也证明了你希望证明、提供证据和理由来支持自己的观点——这些东西在学术上统称为论点。这和这个词的日常理解“有争论”非常不同。这里，我们分析了一个论点。
Activity 18
活动18
- What do you think is needed to make an argument a really good one (i.e. for the case to be convincing)?
- 你认为什么才是让一个论据成为优秀论据的必要条件（比如在这个例子中的说服）？
- What could be done to improve (make more convincing) the argument analysed in Activity 22?
- 什么能改善（增强说服力）活动22所分析的证据？
Discussion
讨论
When arguing a case, it needs to be clear what the case is. Perhaps, in the example above, the title should have been 'Why breakfast cereal is worth eating'. A good argument will have a clear and logical flow (line of reasoning). The sequence of thinking in the example was not clear or logical. For example, starting from the original question, a logical path might lead to discussion of reasons why breakfast is more important than other meals, and perhaps include information on demands on the body and physiological perspectives on the timing and types of food eaten. To be convinced, we need good reasons or evidence which is relevant. It is not immediately clear how the information about the nutritional value of breakfast cereals is relevant to the case for breakfast being the most important meal of the day. Moreover, how do we know the information is correct?
当争论一件事情的时候，需要弄清楚争论的是什么。也许，在上面的例子中，标题应该叫做“为什么谷类早餐值得吃？”。一个好的论据应当是清晰而逻辑的（论证过程）。在上例中，思维的顺序并不清晰并不逻辑。举例来说，就从最开始的问题开始，逻辑化的办法应该是引导读者讨论为什么早餐比其他几餐更重要的原因，可能还包括食物种类和安排上的生理学知识和身体需求信息。可以肯定的是，我们需要与之相关的好的理由或证据。并不要立即说清楚谷类早餐的营养价值相关信息和早餐是最重要的一餐之间的关系。更何况，我们怎么知道这些信息就是正确的？
Activity 19
活动19
Having appropriate evidence to support arguments is important.
使用适当的证据来支持论点很重要。
Which of the following statements might be most convincing and why?
下列哪项陈述最具说服力，为什么？
- ▪ There is life on other planets in the universe.
- ▪ There is life on other planets in the universe because Mike Edwards says so.
- ▪ There is life on other planets in the universe because an eminent Cambridge Professor of Astronomy says so.
- ▪ There is a high probability of life on other planets in the universe because we know from studies by experts that there are in the order of 100 billion stars in our galaxy and there are 100 billion galaxies. This gives 10 22 stars. Some of these stars are likely to have planets associated with them. While the conditions conducive to life are rare, such a large number of planets gives a high probability that life will exist on a planet somewhere in the universe.
- ▪ Samples of surface material from other planets in the universe have been taken by space missions and found to contain life forms.
- 宇宙中的其他行星上也有生命。
- 宇宙中的其他行星上也有生命，因为 Mike Edwards 这么说。
- 宇宙中的其他行星上也有生命，因为一位著名的剑桥天文学教授这么说。
- 在宇宙中的其他行星上有生命的可能性非常高。因为我们从专家的研究得知，在银河系有一千亿颗恒星，宇宙中有一千亿个星系，这样就有10^22颗恒星。这些恒星当中有一部分围绕得有行星。尽管有利于生命的条件很难得，但这样庞大数目的行星使得生命存在于宇宙中某个行星之上的可能性非常高。
- 在太空任务中采自其他行星表面的原料样品中发现含有生命形式。
(Adapted from Collier and Twomey, 1997)
（改编自 Collier and Twomey, 1997）
Discussion
讨论
It would be reasonable to feel somewhat unconvinced by the first statement; it is an unsupported assertion. It may well just be an opinion, there is no reason or evidence provided. Being able to distinguish fact from opinion is important. In the second case, the statement is apparently given authority by being attributed to Mike Edwards. The question is - who is Mike Edwards? What reason is there for believing him rather than anyone else? We do not know on what basis he has made such a statement. We might feel a bit more convinced by the eminent Cambridge Professor of Astronomy. After all she or he may have spent many years in relevant study and be making a statement based on this wealth of experience. But, what if the professor had not been a professor of astronomy? What credence would we give to someone's views if they were an expert in another area? For example, a pop star or celebrity chef making a statement on a political issue? We need to take care in transferring authority in one area to another. Maybe someone's skills are transferable to another situation - but maybe not. The penultimate case is more convincing, because we are presented with a logical line of reasoning. In the final statement, we appear to have factual evidence that there are life forms on other planets. Even then, we need to think about the certainty of 'facts'. Knowledge changes and depends on context. It is only as good as the methods used to obtain it. Instances of 'facts' turning out to be artefacts of methods are common. Perhaps in this case the life forms found in the samples were contaminants on the equipment (acquired from Earth before or after the sampling journey). Sometimes, general conclusions are drawn from insufficient data or information. Does the evidence provide sufficient information to prove something or only suggest something is probable?
第一项陈述理所应当的不会让人信服，它是一项没有任何依据的说法。它没有提供理由或证据，它只是一项不错的观点。能够区分事实和观点相当重要。在第二项，该陈述显然依赖于 Mike Edwards 的权威。问题是， Mike Edwards 是谁？有什么理由相信他而非别人？我们不知道他基于什么做出这样一项声明。我们可能会更相信剑桥大学的著名天文学教授，毕竟他花费了大量年岁从事相关研究，并基于丰富的经验发表此项陈述。但是，如果这位教授并不是一个天文学教授又会怎么样？我们应当给予其他领域的专家什么样的信任？比如，我们应当如何看待一位明星或名厨对一项政治问题发表的声明？我们要当心权威从一个领域跑到其他领域去。也许某人的技能可以应用到其他情况——但也许不能。倒数第二项更具说服力，因为为我们提供了一套逻辑化的论证过程。在最后一项陈述中，我们似乎有来自其他行星的生命形式这一事实证据。即便这样，我们也需要考虑“事实”的真实性。知识改变环境并被环境改变。只是和用于获取它的方法一样。“事实”的实例常常被证明是研究方法的产物。在这项例子中，在样品中发现的生命形式也许只是设备上的污染物（来自于抽样过程之前或之后的泥土）。有时候，结论一般来自于不充分的数据或信息。证据是提供了充足的信息以证明某事物，还是仅仅可能支持某事物？
We hope this example illustrates the importance of using appropriate evidence or reasoning to support an argument, and the importance of being cautious in what you use and accept as evidence. You should certainly avoid unsupported assertions in academic work and strive to provide the most appropriate and convincing evidence you can.
8.1: Balanced argument
8.1：平衡论点
In many instances, we are not just concerned with arguing a particular case or taking a particular point of view, we are interested in looking at all sides of an issue and producing a balanced argument. This can be helpful in drawing conclusions on an issue.
在许多情况下，我们不应只关注当下争论的特定例子或者持有特定看法，我们感兴趣的应该是看待问题的各个方面并产生一个均衡的论点。这有助于解决问题得出结论。
Figure 5: Caffeine arguments
图五：咖啡因论点
Activity 20活动
20
Look at Figure 4. Make a note of what strikes you about this article. How helpful do you think this article would be to someone who wanted to decide whether or not they should cut out caffeine?
阅读图五。写下你对这篇文章的看法。你认为这篇文章对于戒除或饮用咖啡因的人有多少帮助？
Discussion
讨论
The article presents both good and bad information about caffeine. The caffeine article provides evidence in the form of facts and figures. There is a general conclusion, which might be helpful to someone trying to decide what to do about his or her caffeine intake.
8.2: Broadening perception
8.2：拓宽认知
Particular perspectives and points of view underpin speaking and writing. Being successful at many academic tasks, including balanced argument, often requires us to be conscious of and to try to break away from our usual perspectives and ways of thinking, and to attend to things we might not normally notice. The challenge is often to be more open-minded and broad in our thinking, to consider more than one point of view in the way that the caffeine article did. It can be useful to have strategies for helping us to examine and change our perceptions. Activity 21 will start you off on this road.
具体的看法和观点决定如何叙述和写作。要在包括平衡论点等许多学术任务上取得成功，常常需要我们意识到并尝试摆脱自己一贯的看法和思维途径，同时注意我们平时不会注意的事物。挑战经常以更开放的胸襟和广阔的思维，来多角度考虑咖啡因文章所写东西。这有助于使用策略来帮助我们审视和改变我们的观念。活动21将引导你上路。
Activity 21
活动21
Print out or copy the figure below then, without taking your pen off the paper draw four straight lines so that all the dots in Figure 5 are joined.
打印下图，在保证铅笔不离开纸面的前提下用四条直线连接图六中所有点。
Discussion
讨论
How did you get on? In order to complete this task, you needed to 'think outside the box' (that is, to perceive the task in a way that might not have been immediately obvious. The solution to this puzzle is given below.
你做得怎么样？为了完成这一任务，你需要“打破思维的框架”（即，以一种不直接不明显的角度理解任务）。这道难题的解决办法如下。
There are many useful thinking tools for helping you to 'think outside the box'. Playing 'devil's advocate' is one - that is, what would somebody with an opposite view or someone who disagrees say?
这儿有很多有用的工具，可以帮助你“打破思维的框架”。玩“魔鬼代言人”就是一个——就是，坚持一种相反的或者人们不愿意说的观点？
Activity 22
活动22
Think of as many ways as you can to finish the following sentence.
想出尽可能多的办法来完成下面的句子。
People should be encouraged to smoke because …
人们应鼓励吸烟因为……
Discussion
讨论
Did you find this difficult? Perhaps you have particular principles or feelings that influenced your ability to respond to the task? Here are some reasons you could have given: many people find smoking enjoyable; smoking helps people to cope with life; smokers generate employment in the tobacco industry; smoking raises taxes; smoking lowers the cost of geriatric care because smokers tend to die younger than non-smokers; smoking reduces the level of chronic illness in the elderly population because smokers tend to die younger than non-smokers; smoking saves on pension payments because smokers tend to die younger than non-smokers; young people think smoking is cool - it makes them feel they belong (adapted from Seedhouse, 1997). Looking at this list were you itching to argue against some of them? If so, you can see how valuable this is in stimulating thinking! We hope that this activity will help you appreciate that we can consider other points of view (even if we do not agree with them).
你是否觉得很困难？也许你有特殊的原则或感情，影响了你处理此任务的能力？这儿有一些理由你可能会考虑：许多人找到吸烟的乐趣；吸烟帮助人们应对生活；吸烟者增加烟草行业的就业机会；吸烟增加税收；吸烟降低照顾老年人的成本，因为吸烟者比不吸烟的人寿命更短；吸烟减少缓慢性疾病的老年人，因为吸烟者比不吸烟的人寿命更短；年轻人觉得吸烟很酷——这让他们有归属感（改编自Seedhouse, 1997）。看见这份清单你是否很想反驳它们？如果是的话，你就可以看到这对于激发思维有多大的价值！我们希望这个活动能帮助你意识到，我们能够从其他角度考虑问题（尽管我们不同意那些观点）。
The PMI technique (de Bono, 1999) is another tool to help you think outside the box and make a balanced argument. The idea is to look at the plus (good) points, minus (bad) points and the interesting points.
PMI技术（de Bono, 1999）是另一项帮助你打破思维框架、形成平衡论点的工具。这个概念是关注积极因素、消极因素和有趣的因素。
Activity 23
活动23
Use the PMI technique to look at the case for promoting smoking or another subject of your choice.
Discussion
讨论
If you chose smoking, you could put the points noted above on the plus side. On the minus side, some possibilities might include: smoking causes sickness and shortens lives; smoking makes people unfit; treating smoking related diseases is a drain on NHS resources; smoking leads to absenteeism and loss of productivity; smoking damages non-smokers through passive smoking; smoking is dirty and smelly; smoking causes accidents such as fires and other damage to property (adapted from Seedhouse, 1997). On the interesting side, some suggestions might include: if we promoted it, would smoking become less fashionable among the young, would the price of cigarettes go down, and would a cure for cancer be found more quickly?
8.3: Academic arguments
8.3：学术论证
You have looked at some examples of everyday arguments, now look at a short example of an academic argument.
你已经看了生活中论证的例子，现在来看看一个学术论证的小例子。
Activity 25
活动25
Read the argument below. Compare and contrast it to the previous examples of arguments you have looked at ('Why breakfast is the most important meal of the day' and 'The truth about caffeine'). Consider issues such as the style, whether or not more than one point of view is presented, and what evidence is provided to support points made. Make a note of your responses.
阅读下面的论证。把它与前面你看过的两个论证例子（“为什么早餐是一天中最重要的一餐”和“咖啡因的真相”）进行比较和对比。考虑以下问题：风格、是否呈现多个视角、有哪些证据来支持其观点。记下你的回答。
Can primates acquire language?
灵长类能否掌握语言？
Communication is an important part of animal behaviour. For example, primates use a variety of sounds and gestures in social interaction to portray threat, intention, alarm, and so on - and highly sophisticated forms of communication are found in other species as well (whales and dolphins provide a fascinating example). But, for many researchers this is not the same as human language which is essentially infinite in its meaning (largely due to its grammar), and which is able to associate specific (and abstract) meanings with arbitrary sound and symbols. Indeed, language is the thing that makes us uniquely human (or so the argument goes), and no other species comes close to emulating our ability to comprehend, use, and produce language.
沟通是动物行为中很重要的一部分。举例来说，灵长类在社会交往中利用各种声音和动作表达威胁、意愿、报警等等——其他物种（鲸和海豚就是很好的例子）也发现有高度精密的沟通形式。但是，对于多数研究者而言，这和人类语言并不一样，人类语言的含义基本上是无限的（主要是因为它有语法），而且任何声音和符号都能附有具体（和抽象）含义。的确，语言是令人类独一无二的事物（或者还有争论），没有其他物种在理解、使用和产生语言方面接近或者赶上我们的能力。
But is language really unique to human beings? One problem with this theory is that other animals (including primates) cannot make our sounds. For example, they do not have the same fine control over their tongues, lips, and vocal chords, and are therefore unable to talk. Thus, if animals were to learn or understand language they would not be able to tell us. With this possibility in mind, Beatrice and Roger Gardner during the 1960s set about teaching a female chimpanzee (called Washoe) a version of American sign language used by deaf people. The Gardners began when Washoe was about one year old - and within three years she had developed a vocabulary of over 130 signs (or 'words'). Moreover, she learned to combine the signs to make simple sentences, and to use 'words' in creative and novel ways (e.g. after learning the verb 'to open' she would ask the investigators to 'open' the tap whenever she wanted a drink). Other researchers have confirmed these findings, and similar work has been undertaken with gorillas and orangutans.(Paterson and Linden 1981; Miles 1983)
但语言真的仅为人类所有么？这个理论有一个问题就是，其他动物（包括灵长类）不能发出我们的声音。具体来说，他们并不能同样精细地控制自己的舌头、嘴唇以及声带，因而无法交谈。因此，如果动物学习或理解语言的话，它们无法告诉我们。考虑到这种可能性，Beatrice 和 Roger Gardner 在1960年代开始教一只雌性黑猩猩（叫做 Washoe）一种美国聋哑人手语。他们从Washoe一岁的时候开始，在三年时间里她已经发展出了一套超过130个符号（或者说“单词”）的语法。此哇，她还学会了组合这些符号来构成简单的句子，并且能够为“单词”赋予新的含义（比如，学了动词“打开”之后当她想喝水的时候她会要求研究者“打开”水龙头）。其他研究人员也证实了这些发现，在大猩猩和猩猩身上已经开展了类似的工作。（Paterson 和 Linden 1981；Miles 1983）
However, the interpretation of these findings remains highly controversial. For example, some researchers have argued that these animals are not learning sign language per se, but rather they are only imitating the gestures made by their trainers. In support of this idea, they point out that primates often combine signs in illogical sequences and only occasionally join signs together in a meaningful way (which the trainer will inevitably then choose to reinforce). Others have argued that although primates might be able to communicate with language, there is little evidence to indicate that they can also use it as a vehicle for thought. But there are those who disagree. For example, some of the most compelling evidence for language in primates has come from Susan Savage-Rumbaugh and her colleagues who worked with a male pigmy chimpanzee called Kanzi. Apparently, this primate can understand about 150 English spoken words and can respond to complex and unfamiliar spoken commands such as 'throw your ball in the river' and 'go to the refrigerator and get out a tomato' (Savage-Rumbaugh 1990). Moreover, Kanzi can even use symbols to communicate past events, e.g. she pressed the symbols on a special keyboard to represent 'Matata bite' (Matata is a fellow monkey) to explain a cut that was on her hand.
然而，对这些发现的解释极具争议。比如，有些研究者认为这些动物实际上并不是在学习手语，而是在模仿训练者所做的动作。为支持这个观点，他们指出灵长类经常不按顺序组合符号，偶尔才能组合出具有一定含义的句子（而训练者将会不可避免的肯定并强化）。也有人认为，虽然灵长类可以利用语言进行沟通，有迹象表明他们也能将语言用作思考的手段。但也有人不同意。举例来说，灵长类使用语言最令人信服的证据来自于Susan Savage-Rumbaugh 及其同仁，他们研究一只叫做Kanzi的雄性倭黑猩猩。显然，这只灵长类动物可以理解大约150个英语口语词汇，并能对复杂而陌生的口头命令做出反应，比如“把你的球扔到河里”和“去到冰箱拿出西红柿”（Savage-Rumbaugh 1990）。此外，Kanzi 甚至能利用符号来交流过去的事情，比如，它按下特殊键盘上的符号来表达“Matata 咬”（Matata是另一只猴子）来解释他手上的伤口。
These findings imply that language may not be unique human ability after all - although to put this work into its correct perspective, it needs to be borne in mind that Kanzi's language skills are only equivalent to that of a two-year-old human (Greenfield and Savage-Rumbaugh 1990). Thus, it still remains the case that no other species comes close to matching our ability to use and understand language. In other words, language is our natural medium of communication, although the same can clearly not be said of other animals.
这些发现意味着语言可能不是人类所独有的能力——虽然把这项工作纳入正确的观点，需要记住Kanzi的语言能力只相当于一个两岁的人类小孩（Greenfield 及 Savage-Rumbaugh 1990）。因此，依然没有其他物种掌握甚至接近我们使用和理解语言的能力。换句话说，语言是我们天赋的交流媒介，其他动物虽然能交流但不能交谈。
(Wickens, 2000)
Discussion
讨论
You may have noted that both the style and language of this argument are different. Different perspectives on the issue are presented and there is evidence to back up the points made. References are included to give the points weight and to show the sources used. The author has demonstrated higher order skills and independent thinking. For example, ideas are put together (synthesis), their worth evaluated, a conclusion on the issue reached (independent thinking).
你也许已经注意到这篇论证的风格和语言有所不同。从不同角度看待问题，并提出证据支持论点。参考资料为论点增加份量，并能显示引用出处。作者表现出高阶思维技能和独立思考能力。比如，观点被放在一起（综合），评估价值，得出结论（独立思考）。
Debates over issues can be complex as a result of the many points of view and arguments. One way to make sense of all this might be to produce a visual map in which you summarise the key arguments and how they are linked to each other.
9: Putting it all together
9：整合在一起
We have covered a wide range of aspects of thinking, particularly those concerned with clear and critical thinking. At this stage, you may find it useful to consider how ideas like these can be put together in ways that will help you when you engage in activities such as reading, writing, speaking and listening. Here is a checklist to use when making judgements about things that you hear, see and experience.
我们已经涉足思维的大部分范围，特别是那些与明确思维和批判思维有关的部分。在这一阶段，你会发现这些概念将有助于你考虑如何将概念整合在一起，从而帮助你从事诸如阅读、写作、发言以及倾听等活动。这儿有一份清单，在你听到、看到和体验到事物需要做出判断的时候可以使用。
- Who is speaking or writing?
- What is their point of view or perspective?
- What ideas and information are presented and how were they obtained?
- Are there unsupported assertions?
- Are reasons or evidence provided?
- Are the reasons and evidence given relevant?
- Is the method used to find the evidence sound?
- Is the evidence correct or valid?
- What assumptions have been made?
- What is fact and what is opinion?
- What are the implicit and explicit values?
- Are there unreasonable generalisations?
- What has been omitted?
- How was the conclusion reached?
- Is the conclusion reasonable?
- What other perspectives or points of view could there be?
- 谁在发言或者写作？
- 他们的观点或看法是什么？
- 提供了什么概念和信息？他们是如何获得的？
- 是否有不被支持的主张？
- 是否提供证据或理由？
- 理由和证据是否切题？
- 用于发现证据的方法可靠么？
- 证据正确、可用么？
- 提出什么样的假设？
- 哪些是客观事实，哪些是主观判断？
- 哪些是内在的价值，哪些是外在价值？
- 是否有不合理的推断？
- 遗漏了什么？
- 如何得出结论的？
- 结论合理么？
- 能否还有其他视角或观点？
You may be able to think of more points to add to this list.
你也可以相处更多要点并添加到这份清单中去。
Activity 26
活动26
Find an opportunity in your daily life today for exercising your thinking skills using the checklist above. For example, you could consider an advertising claim, a problem, or what party to vote for in an election.
在你今天的日常生活当中找一个机会，用上面清单来训练你的思维技能。比如，你可以考虑一个广告、一个问题或者在选举中投哪个党派的票。
Discussion
讨论
An example might be an advertising claim such as 'speak French in only three hours'. You might ask who has made the claim and what is the evidence that you can achieve any mastery of French in three hours? What does speaking French mean? Do they mean fluent French? Would it seem realistic to have a useful working knowledge in this time? The reality is that you might learn some French but probably not enough to get around on holiday.
广告例子，“三小时开口说法语”。你可能要问谁做的这个广告，三小时内掌握法语的证据是什么？开口说法语值的是什么意思？是指法语流利么？在这点时间里真能学到有用的知识么？事实是你可能会学到一些法语，但还不够让你假日去法国旅行。
You can look out for material to stimulate thought in this way in newspapers, magazines and on the television and radio.
你可以用这个办法在报纸、杂志、和电视、广播中注意能够激发思维的素材。
These last two activities will help you to continue developing your thinking skills.
最后两个活动将帮助你继续开发你的思维技能。
Activity 32
活动32
Make an action plan outlining the actions you are going to take to develop your thinking skills … what you are going to do … how … by when?
制作一份行动计划，概述在此行动中你打算如何开发你的思维技能……你打算怎么做……怎么做……什么时候实施？
Activity 27
活动27
Try keeping a study log with a focus on thinking skills. As you do this, make time to pause and reflect on what you have written. Consider what new skills you have developed, what has improved, what was really difficult and what you might focus on in the future.
10:Further reading and sources of help
10：进一步的阅读和帮助资源
10.1: Further reading
10.1：进一步的阅读
There are many relevant books available from libraries and bookshops. Here are some suggestions to start you off.
这儿有许多相关书籍，在书店和图书馆都能找到。这儿有一些建议可以帮助你开始。
- de Bono's Thinking Course by Edward de Bono, published by BBC Books, 1999 An interesting general consideration of thinking skills with tools and techniques for developing thinking in a general way.
- Use Your Head by Tony Buzan, published by BBC Books, 1995 Lots of useful information on how to make the most of your brainpower.
- The Mindmap Book by Tony Buzan, published by BBC Books, 1997 A whole text specifically on the technique of mind-mapping and its applications.
- Reading, Writing and Reasoning. A Guide for Students by J. Fairbairn and C. Winch, published by Open University Press, 1998 Contains good material on academic reasoning and argument.
- Clear Thinking by J. Inglis and R. Lewis, published by National Extension College/CollinsEducational, 1993 Contains some excellent material on academic argument.
- The Scientific Endeavour a Primer on Scientific Principles and Practice by J. A. Lee, published by Adison Wesley Longman, Inc., 2000 A book about science that contains an excellent section on critical thinking in a scientific context.
- 《超级思考帽》爱德华·德·波诺，人民邮电出版社，2006，一本有趣的、对思维技能工具和用于常规开发思维的技术进行一般性思考的书籍。
- 《开动大脑》托尼·巴赞，世界图书出版公司，2004，大量关于如何充分使用你的智慧的有用信息。
- 《思维导图》托尼·巴赞，作家出版社，1998，专门描述思维导图技术及其应用。
- Reading, Writing and Reasoning. A Guide for Students by J. Fairbairn and C. Winch, published by Open University Press, 1998 含有对学术推理和论证很好的素材。
- Clear Thinking by J. Inglis and R. Lewis, published by National Extension College/CollinsEducational, 1993 包含一些对于学术论证非常有用的素材。
- The Scientific Endeavour a Primer on Scientific Principles and Practice by J. A. Lee, published by Adison Wesley Longman, Inc., 2000 一本关于科学的书籍，有关科学方面批判性思维的一些章节非常出彩。
10.2: Sources of help
10.2：帮助资源
The internet
互联网
There is a wealth of useful information on thinking on the internet. Putting key words (such as thinking skills, clear thinking, critical thinking, analysis, argument and so on) into one of the available search engines (e.g. http://www.google.com [accessed 10 October 2006]) will produce many useful links. American university websites contain some particularly interesting material of relevance to those working at university level.
在互联网上有关于思维的有用资源非常丰富。在某可可用搜索引擎（比如 Google）中键入关键字（比如 思维技能、冷静思考、批判性思维、分析、论证等等），将会得到非常多的有用链接。美国大学网站包含了一些特别有趣的素材，是在大学水平上的相关素材。References
参考资料
de Bono, E. (1999) de Bono's Thinking Course. London, BBC Books
Entwistle, N. (1994) quoted in Supporting Open Learners Reader (1996) Milton Keynes, The Open University
Holmes, O. W. quoted in Robbins, A. (1991) Awaken the giant within. New York, Simon & Schuster
Rice, M. (1999) Observer Magazine, 7 November, p. 61
Rose, C. and Nicholl, M. (1997) Accelerated Learning for the 21st Century. London, Piatkus
Seedhouse, D. (1997) Health Promotion. Philosophy, Prejudice and Practice. Sussex, John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Wickens, A. (2000) Foundations of Biopsychology. Harlow, Prentice Hall
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对其内容的引用已获得授权（详见条款）并在授权范围内使用。
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图片
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感谢Flickr提供空间存储图片http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=1644
