翻译《开放大学课程ED840_1 家长与幼儿：居家教学》
Parents and toddlers: teaching and learning at home
家长与幼儿：居家教学
Time: 20 hours
时间：二十小时
Level: Advanced- 程度：高级
Introduction
前言
Introduction- 前言
- This unit looks at how parents
encourage the development of new skills in their children in the
informal setting of the home. The use of video observation of small
children by psychologists is analysed... - 本单元关注家长如何促进其子女在家中非正规环境中发展新技能。心理学家使用录像观察幼儿是为了分析……
1 Teaching and learning relationships in early childhood
一、早期幼儿阶段教和学的关系
- 1 Teaching and learning relationships in early childhood
- 早期幼儿阶段早和学的关系
- In this unit we will look at how
children's early experiences with their caregivers and peers contribute
to the learning of new skills and problem-solving strategies. We will
pay special attention to the... - 在本单元我们将研究儿童与其照顾者及同龄人的早期经验是如何有助于学习新技能、新的解决问题策略的。我们将特别注意……
2 Cognitive socialisation and ‘good tuition’
二、认知社会化与“好的教学”
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.1 前言
- During his interview, Daniels expressed the opinion that Vygotsky's theory is attractive because it:
- 在访问过程中，丹尼尔斯表达了维果茨基的理论迷人的观点，因为：
- 2.2 Levels of control
- 2.2 控制的程度
- Vygotsky claimed that
co-operation with a more able peer could also create a zone of proximal
development (ZPD) within which a less experienced child can learn and
develop. Owen clearly has had more experience... - 维果茨基声称，一位在学习和进步的时候缺少经验的孩子，与一位更有能力的伙伴合作，可以创建最近发展区（ZPD）。欧文明显有更多经验……
- 2.3 Use of instructions and diagrams
- 2.3 使用说明与图例
- If you now compare Video 1 with
Video 2 it is apparent that in Video 2 both Owen and his mother, Megan,
are helping Joe learn an important lesson of a very different kind
(without consciously attempting... - 如果你现在比较视频一和视频二，很明显，在视频二当中，欧文和他的母亲梅根，正在帮助乔学习一门非常不同的重要课程（不自觉的想……
3 The nature of effective instruction
三、有效教学的本质
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.1 前言
- Read Chapter 9 of Cultural Worlds
of Early Childhood, ‘Aspects of teaching and learning’, by David Wood,
attached below. In this reading Wood addresses three main issues. First
is the concept of ground... - 阅读戴维·伍德《幼儿时期的文化世界》第九章《教和学的各个方面》，具体附后。在阅读材料中，伍德处理三个主要问题。首先是基本规则的概念……
- 3.2 Guided participation – a cultural perspective
- 引导参与——一种文化视角
- So far, we've looked at some of
the key concepts of a socio-cultural approach to teaching and learning,
and explored various ways of analysing the interaction sequences on the
video. While scaffolding... - 到目前为止，我们已经研究过教和学的社会文化方法的一些重要概念，并探讨了视频中的互动序列的各种分析方法。虽然脚手架……
- 3.3 Applying the concept of guided participation
- 3.3 应用引导参与这个概念
- Before leaving Rogoff's work,
we'd like to look a little more closely at the analytic framework she
calls guided participation. In Reading 5 Rogoff et al. summarise two
broad features, as described below.... - 在离开罗格夫的工作之前，我们想更深入的观察这个他称为引导参与的分析框架。在阅读材料五当中，罗格夫等人总结了两大特点，分述如下……
References and Acknowledgements参考文献与致谢
- References
- 参考文献
- Acknowledgements
- 致谢
Introduction
前言
This
unit looks at how parents encourage the development of new skills in
their children in the informal setting of the home. The use of video
observation of small children by psychologists is analysed and some of
the key concepts in developmental psychology that explain teaching and
learning interactions between parents/caregivers and their children are
explained.
本单元关注家长如何鼓励其子女在家庭非正规环境中发展新技能。心理学家使用录像观察幼儿是为了做分析，并且，发展心理学中的一些能够解释家长/保姆与其子女之间教学互动的关键概念得到解释。
Learning Outcomes
学习成果
After studying this unit you should be able to:
在学习本单元之后，你应该能做到：
- discuss
how children's early experiences with their parents/caregivers,
siblings and peers contribute to the learning of new skills and
problem-solving techniques; - 讨论儿童与其家长保姆同龄人以及伙伴之间的早期经验，是如何有助于学习新技能和解决问题的技能的；
- understand how
parents/caregivers use talk and play in informal teaching and learning
exchanges with toddlers and young children to communicate social and
cultural practices; - 理解家长/保姆在婴幼儿的非正规教学活动中，使用谈话和游戏传达社会和文化习俗；
- understand key psychological and educational theories and concepts relating to children's social development and mental growth;
- 理解一些关键的心理和教育理论，以及与儿童社会发展、心理成长相关的概念；
- appreciate the features of effective teaching used by parents and other adults in informal learning settings such as the home;
- 对家长及其他成年人在诸如家庭等非正规学习环境中使用的有效教学的特点表示欣赏；
- appreciate
why researchers rely on detailed observation of video-data to develop
an understanding of the psychological processes that take place during
teaching and learning interactions between young children and their
parents/caregivers. - 对研究者依靠对视频数据进行详细的观察，才能理解发生在幼儿及其家长/保姆之间的教学互动中的心理过程，这种行为，表示理解。
1 Teaching and learning relationships in early childhood
一、幼儿期的教学关系
In
this unit we will look at how children's early experiences with their
caregivers and peers contribute to the learning of new skills and
problem-solving strategies. We will pay special attention to the way
talk is used in teaching and learning exchanges as this is the
principal means by which older, more experienced members of a society
communicate social and cultural practices, knowledge and collective
wisdom to younger apprentice learners.
在本单元我们将研究儿童与其父洋人和同龄人之间的早期经验是如何有助于学习新的技能和新的解决问题策略的。我们将特别关注将谈话用在教学交流中的方式，因为这是这是年长的更有经验的社会成员向年轻的学徒式学习者传达社会与文化习俗、知识和集体智慧的主要手段。
An interview with Harry Daniels
一次对哈瑞·丹尼尔斯的访问
Read
the notes below and then listen to the audio clip attached below. You
may find it helpful simply to listen to the interview the first time,
and then to listen to it again concentrating and making your own notes
on the meanings of the concepts and ideas discussed.
阅读如下说明并收听附后的音频片段。你这样做可能会更好：第一次简单的听这段访问，然后再专心听一次，并就讨论的概念和思路的含义做笔记。
An interview with Professor Harry Daniels (MP3, 4.4 MB)
对哈尔丹·尼尔斯教授做的一次访问（MP3, 4.4 MB）
Listen in separate player
Click play to start.
在单独播放器中播放，点击播放开始收听。
In
the interview Martin Woodhead asks Professor Harry Daniels to comment
on why it is that Vygotsky's ideas have become so attractive in the
world of education. His main questions are:
(a) What is it about Vygotsky's ideas that make them so attractive to education?
(b) What is it about Vygotsky's ideas that are distinctive?
(c) Why does Vygotsky emphasise the role of language in development?
(d) Can Vygotsky's theory be applied to understanding teaching and
learning in classroom contexts as well as to understanding simple
dyadic interaction?
在访问中，马丁·伍德海德要求哈尔丹·尼尔斯教授解释为什么维果茨基的理念在教育界变得如此吸引人。他的主要问题是：（甲）是什么令维果茨基的理念在教育界如此吸引人？（乙）是什么另维果茨基的理念如此与众不同？（丙）为什么维果茨基强调语言在发展中的作用？（丁）维果茨基的理论能否应用于在教室环境中理解教学，以及理解简单的双向互动？
In the interview Daniels introduces and defines the following key Vygotskian concepts:
在访问中，丹尼尔斯介绍并界定了维果茨基学以下关键概念：
mediation;
- 调解；
psychological tools and cultural artefacts;
- 心理学工具与文化作品；
the zone of proximal development (ZPD);
- 最近发展区（ZPD）；
appropriation;
- 拨付；
scaffolding.
- 脚手架。
Try to familiarise yourself with Daniels’ definitions of these concepts.
尽量熟悉这些概念的丹尼尔斯定义。
2 Cognitive socialisation and ‘good tuition’
二、认知社会化与好的教学
2.1 Introduction
2.1 简介
During his interview, Daniels expressed the opinion that Vygotsky's theory is attractive because it:
在这次访问当中，丹尼尔斯阐述了维果茨基理论吸引人的原因：
Promotes the view that effective parenting, instruction and education lead
development. Preparing, or socialising, children for the future,
therefore, becomes a highly meaningful (and often politically charged)
activity, as does deciding which types of experiences will best foster
the acquisition of skills and competencies of particular value to a
society.
促进有效的养育、教导与教育会导致儿童的发展这种观点。因此，儿童为了将来做准备或者交往，变成一项非常有意义的（通常是充满政治色彩的）活动，因为对体验的类型做出选择，将能最大程度促进获取具有特殊社会价值的能力和技能。
（哈尔丹·尼尔斯教授）
Simply
providing children with appropriate experiences, however, is not
sufficient. Children also need guidance and instruction. In early
childhood, joint involvement episodes (JIEs) provide informal teaching
and learning contexts in which mutual co-operation between adult and
child can lead to mental growth. This is what we mean when we talk
about cognitive socialisation. Of course not all experiences
are good experiences and this has led psychologists such as Schaffer
(1996), Wood and Middleton (1975) and O'Connell and Bretherton (1984)
to ask the question ‘What are the distinctive features of effective
tuition?’.
然而，仅仅向儿童提供适当的经验，是不够的。儿童也需要指导和教导。在幼儿早期，共同参与活动（JIE）为成年人和儿童之间可以导致心里成长的相互协作，提供了非正规教学环境。这就是在我们谈论认知社会化时所指的。当然，并不是所有的经验都是好经验，这就使得谢佛（1996）、伍德和米德尔顿（1975）以及奥康内尔和布雷塞顿（1984）等心理学家问出了“有效教学的特征是什么？”这个问题。
Reading 1
阅读材料一
Read the section on cognitive socialisation from Social Development
by H. Rudolph Schaffer, attached below, where Schaffer provides a brief
introduction to this topic. The important things to note for now are
Schaffer's definitions of the characteristic features of contingent interaction and joint involvement episodes (JIEs).
阅读下面节选自鲁道夫·谢佛的《社会化发展》的《认知社会化》，在这里谢佛对此主题提供了一份简要介绍。现在最需要注意的是谢佛对群体互动和共同参与活动（JIE）的特征的界定。
Cognitive Socialization extract from Social Development (PDF, 6 pages, 1.1 MB)
摘自鲁道夫·谢佛的《社会化发展》的《认知社会化》（Google Docs）
Schaffer
defines ‘effective tuition’ as teaching which elicits performance from
the child at a developmentally advanced level. He argues that effective
tuition obeys the contingent-shift rule. Effective tutors
gradually transfer responsibility for tackling the task in hand from
the adult to the child as he or she begins to master more and more
complex aspects of the task or problem. As you have seen Vygotsky
described this process of gradual transfer from adult to child as internalization. Daniels describes it as appropriation.
Although Schaffer focuses on adult-child tuition, these concepts are
relevant to all those situations where a tutor, or more knowledgeable
person, is responsible for passing on some knowledge or skill to a less
experienced person.
谢佛将引起儿童在一个高的发展水平上开展活动的教学定义为“有效教学”。他认为，有效教学服从于随时发生规则。有效教师逐渐将解决任务的责任从成年人转移到儿童身上，因为他开始控制任务或问题越发复杂的方面。正如你所见到的，维果茨基将这种从成年人到儿童逐渐转移的过程描述为内化。丹尼尔斯描述为归属。虽然谢佛关于成人—儿童教学，但这些概念也和所有存在一位教师或者一位更富有智慧的人，负责传授某些知识或技能给较少经验的人的情况相关。
In the video
activity below you will look at two short video extracts of JIEs which
nicely illustrate what Schaffer and Wood mean by contingent interaction.
在下面的视频活动当中，你将看到两段视频，选自共同参与活动，能很好的阐明谢佛和伍德对群体互动的解释。
Lego with Mum
与妈妈一起玩乐高积木
For
this activity you will be watching Video 1: ‘Joe's day’, a section of
video which illustrates some fairly typical teaching and learning
interactions which might occur during a day in the life of a pre-school
child. In Video 1 Joe's mother, Megan, is helping him to build a car
using a commercially produced Lego construction pack. The pack is new;
Joe has not used it before.
在这个活动中你将观看视频一：“小乔的一天”，这段视频阐明了在一位学前儿童一天生活中可能发生的某些相当典型的教学互动。在视频一中，小乔的母亲，梅根，在帮助他利用商业乐高积木建造一辆轿车。这套积木是新的，小乔之前没有用过它。
Before
you watch the video read the notes below and the specific instructions
that follow. You will need the video transcript which is attached below
the video.
在你开始看视频之前，阅读下面的说明，以及下面的具体要求。你可能需要在视频下方附加字幕。
This activity is designed
to do two things: first, it illustrates the concepts you have been
reading about so far; second, it asks you to use a simple coding scheme
to categorise Joe's mother's behaviour in the JIE.
这项活动有两个目的：一、它阐明迄今为止你所读到的概念；二、他要求你使用简单的编码方案对小乔母亲在共同参与活动当中的行为分类。
From
the research he has carried out observing similar JIEs in more formal
experimental settings, Wood has identified five ‘levels of control’
which adults typically use to structure such activities for their
child. These are shown in Table 1.
通过这一研究，伍德在更为正规的试验机构中实现了类似共同参与活动的观察，伍德确定了成年人一般在为其子女构建活动时使用的五个“控制层度”。详见表一。
Wood
showed that when children are having difficulty with a task adults
increase their level of control from one through to five. Conversely
where it is clear that a child is able to manage parts of the task for
him or herself, adults decrease the level of control or support
offered. The extent to which adults adjust their level of control to
the competence shown by the child is what Wood calls contingency.
伍德表明，当儿童在一项任务当中遇到困难的时候，成年人会增加其控制程度，从一到五不等。相反，如果很清楚，儿童能够管理任务当中他那一部分，成年人就会降低控制程度或减少支持。成年人因儿童展示出的能力调整其控制程度的范围，伍德称为权变。
Watch
the video all the way though first to familiarise yourself with it,
then watch it again with the transcript. Use Wood's ‘levels of control’
to mark on the transcript Joe's mother's contributions to the JIE. Use
the abbreviations GVP, SVP, IM, PFA and Dem (as shown in Table 1) to do this. Pause the video occasionally to allow yourself time to mark up the transcript.
虽然观看视频一直都是先熟悉一遍，然后再看一遍字幕。在字幕上用伍德的“控制层度”标记小乔母亲对共同参与活动的贡献。使用缩写GVP, SVP, IM, PFA 和 Dem（详见表一）来完成这一步。偶尔暂停视频，让你有时间标记字幕。
Lego with mum
和妈妈一起玩乐高积木
Click play to start.
点击播放
Table 1: Wood's levels of control
表一：伍德的控制程度
| Code | Levels | Example |
| GVP | 1 General verbal prompts | ‘Now you make something’ |
| SVI | 2 Specific verbal instructions | ‘Get four blocks’ |
| IM | 3 Indicates materials | Points to blocks needed |
| PFA | 4 Prepares for assembly | Orients blocks so that they can be fitted together |
| Dem | 5 Demonstrates | Assembles blocks for child |
.
| 代号 | 程度 | 示例 |
| GVP | 1 一般口头提示 | “现在你做个东西看看” |
| SVI | 2 具体口头指令 | “拿四个方块” |
| IM | 3 指明材料 | 指出需要的方块 |
| PFA | 4 打下手 | 调整方块以便他能组装上 |
| Dem | 5 示范 | 替孩子组装方块 |
(Adapted from Wood, in Cultural Worlds of Early Childhood, p. 163)
（改自伍德《幼儿早期的文化世界》，163页）
When
I carried out this activity the first time I wasn't really sure what I
would find. I noted first that Joe does not find this task easy. He
keeps asking how he should fit particular blocks together and needs
help to make the blocks stay in place. This being the case one would
expect quite a high level of control from his mother, and this is
exactly what I found (I hope that you found it too). Megan mostly helps
him build the car by pointing out specific pieces (IM) or preparing
them for assembly (PFA) and at times she demonstrates how the pieces
fit together (Dem). She uses a couple of specific verbal prompts (SVP)
but no general verbal prompts (GVP).
当我进行这项活动的时候，最开始我并不清楚我会找到什么。我首先注意到小乔并不觉得这项任务很简单。他不停的问他应该怎样做才能将某一具体积木块放好，需要帮助才能将积木块放对位置。在这种情况下，儿童希望得到来自母亲的高度控制，而这正是我所发现的（我希望你也能发现它）。梅根通过指出具体的部件（IM），或者为他们准备零部件（PFA），在很大程度上帮助他建造了小汽车，有时候他也演示零部件是组合组装上去的（Dem）。他给出了两三个具体的口头提示（SVP）而不是一般口头提示（GVP）。
Lego with brother
与兄弟一起玩积木
Watch
Video 2 below in which Joe and his brother, Owen, are again building a
Lego model. Megan, their mother, is also present and has asked Owen to
help Joe build the model.
观看如下所示视频二，小乔和他的兄弟欧文再次建造一个乐高模型。梅根，他们的母亲，也在一旁，并要求欧文帮助小乔建造模型。
This activity asks you to do two things. First, use Wood's ‘level's of control’ (see Table 1)
to analyse Owen's attempts to help Joe with the model. Use the
transcript of the interaction again to assist your analysis. Second,
look at how Megan, Owen and Joe use the Lego instruction sheet and
diagram to help them make the model. What differences do you notice
here in the ways in which Joe and Owen use the instructions?
此活动要求你做两件事情。首先，使用伍德的“控制级别”（见表一）分析欧文在帮助小乔建造模型过程中所做的努力。使用这段视频的字幕再次帮助你分析。其次，观察梅根、欧文和小乔是如何使用乐高积木知识手册和图例帮助他们制作模型的。你注意到小乔和欧文在使用这份手册的方式上有什么不同？
Lego with brother
与兄弟一起玩积木
Click play to start.
点击播放
2.2 Levels of control
2.2 控制的程度
Vygotsky claimed that co-operation with a more able peer
could also create a zone of proximal development (ZPD) within which a
less experienced child can learn and develop. Owen clearly has had more
experience in manipulating the small Lego pieces than Joe. Also he
understands that the instruction diagram tells him in which order the
pieces fit together. You will have noted, however, that most of Owen's
interactions with Joe are in the form of specific verbal prompts (SVPs)
and instructions (e.g. ‘Joe, find four wheels’, ‘Joe, can you give Owen
the engine please?’). SVPs are classified as the second lowest level in
Wood's scheme.
维果茨基声称，一个缺少经验的儿童，在学习和发展中，与一位更有能力的伙伴合作，也可以创建最近发展区（ZPD）。很明显欧文比小乔具备更多处理这些小积木的经验。他也明白示例图会告诉他按照什么顺序可以将这些零件装起来。然而，你会注意到，欧文与小乔的大多数互动都是以某种形式的具体口头指示（SVP）和指令（比如，“小乔，找四个轮子”，“小乔，你能给欧文发动机么？”）进行的。在伍德的方案当中，SVP 被列为第二低程度。
It is clear from Video
1, however, that Joe needs much higher levels of support than this. In
this episode Megan supports Joe by preparing bits of Lego so that Joe
can fit them together, and by holding the model still for him. She does
not simply tell him how to fit the pieces together or issue
verbal instructions as Owen does. If Owen were an adult, the support he
offers Joe would not be described as ‘contingent’, according to
Schaffer's and Wood's definition. Owen's instructions are not at an
appropriate level for Joe given this particular task.
然而，从视频一我们可以清楚的知道，小乔需要更高层次的支持。在这个活动中，梅根通过准备积木块的方式支持小乔，这样小乔可以将它们组装起来，并且一直为小乔举着模型做示范。他并不是简单地告诉小乔如何装上去，或者向欧文那样发出口头指令。如果欧文是一个成年人，根据谢佛和伍德的定义，他为小乔提供的支持将不能称为“随时响应”。欧文在这个特定任务中给予小乔的指令并没有处在合适的水平上。
Vygotsky's
claim about more able peers has led psychologists to compare
differences between children and adults in terms of the nature of the
assistance they offer in JIEs when their partner is younger, or less
experienced, than themselves. You should note that although Owen does
most of the construction work himself and rarely encourages active
participation from Joe (even when specifically prompted to do so by his
mother), Owen would probably claim that he is helping Joe as he is showing
Joe how to put the model together. Owen, however, is a less experienced
teacher than his mother and his own interest in making the model
clearly conflicts with his attempts to involve Joe in the activity.
维果茨基声称，儿童和成年人在共同参与活动当中，当他们的伙伴与他们自身相比更年轻或更缺少经验的时候，心理学家根据在这种情况中，更有能力的伙伴所提供的帮助的性质，对伙伴之间的差别进行比较。你应该注意到，虽然欧文独自做了建造工作的大部分，极少鼓励小乔积极参与其中（甚至在他母亲明确要求他这样做的时候也是如此），欧文可能会声称，他在帮助小乔因为他在向小乔展示如何拼装模型。然而，欧文，与其母亲相比是一位缺少经验的教师，很明显，他做模型的兴趣与他邀请小乔参与活动的愿望发生了冲突。
2.3 Use of instructions and diagrams
2.3 使用说明与图例
If
you now compare Video 1 with Video 2 it is apparent that in Video 2
both Owen and his mother, Megan, are helping Joe learn an important
lesson of a very different kind (without consciously attempting to do
so). They are implicitly instructing Joe that diagrams have purpose and
meaning in the context of building Lego models.
如果你现在比较视频一和视频二，很明显，在视频二当中，欧文和妈妈梅根都在帮助小乔学习一门非常不同的重要课程（并非有意要这样做）。他们暗示小乔，在建造乐高模型时，图例有用途有意义。
In
Video 1 Megan does not draw his attention to the instruction diagram at
all, although she herself glances at it from time to time. At the end
of the video, when Joe asks ‘What we making?’, she refers him to a
picture on the box. In Video 2, by contrast, the instructions occupy
the centre of the table and both Owen and Megan refer to them
constantly. Joe also begins to study the diagram. Look at the following
exchange between the two boys. The following sequence takes place:
在视频一当中，梅根根本就没有把小乔的注意力引向说明书，虽然他自己不时的瞥一眼。在食品最后，当小乔问“我们做的是什么？”他指给小乔看盒子上的一张图片。相比之下，在视频二，说明书占据桌子中央，欧文和梅根都在不断的提及。小乔也开始学习图例。注意两个男孩的如下交流。以下按顺序发生：
Joe looks at the instructions.
- 小乔看说明书。
Joe says, ‘And then there's a engine.’
- 小乔说：“这里要一个发动机。”
Owen says, ‘Not yet, not yet Joe … Joe we don't need it yet’, and carries on making the model.
- 欧文说：“还不要，还不要，小乔……小乔我们还不需要发动机”，并继续做模型。
Owen looks at the instructions.
- 欧文看说明书。
Owen says, ‘Joe, can you give Owen the engine please?’
- 欧文说：“小乔，你能给欧文发动机么？”
Joe was right – Owen needed the ‘engine’ next.
小乔是对的——欧文接下来需要“发动机”。
There
are a number of ways in which you could interpret this exchange – watch
the video and study it for yourself. Is it coincidence, or is Joe using
the instruction diagram to suggest to Owen what to do next?
你有若干方法解释这次交流——观看视频，然后自己研究。是巧合，还是小乔在利用说明图例建议欧文下一步该做什么？
Joe
may simply have been imitating the way Owen and his mother use the
diagram; nevertheless, he has understood that it has meaning and
purpose in this particular context. We draw attention to the diagram
because it illustrates another feature of the socio-cultural approach –
the emphasis given to the way cultural tools enhance children's
learning. Knowing how to interpret, or ‘read’, diagramatic instructions
is a vital skill in a technological society, one which Joe is being
introduced to at the age of four. A Vygotskian would say that he is
beginning to learn how to use a particular cultural (and symbolic)
tool, and that in this particular context Joe is signalling his
elementary understanding of how to use diagrams. In Vygotsky's terms
his competence in using diagrams and completing Lego puzzles without
support can be described in terms of ZPD.
小乔可能只是在模仿欧文和他母亲使用图例的动作。虽然如此，在这个特定场合中，他已经理解了图例的意义和用途。我们注意图例是因为它描述了社会文化方法的另一个特征——对文化工具增强儿童学习的方法的重视。知道如何解释，或者“阅读”图例说明书在技术社会中是一项至关重要的技能，小乔在四岁的时候开始接触到这项技能。一位维果茨基理论学者会说，他正在开始学习如何使用一项具体的文化（也是象征性的）工具，在这一具体背景中，小乔显示出他初步了解了如何使用图例。用维果茨基的话说，他在没有帮助下使用图例和完成乐高模型的能力，就可以称作最近发展区。
The next reading provides a synopsis of the concept of ZPD.
接下来的阅读材料提供了最近发展区概念的一份简述。
Reading 2
阅读材料二
Read the extract from Chapter 2 of Dialogue and the Development of Children's Thinking by Mercer and Littleton (2007).
阅读莫瑟与利特尔顿（2007）著作《对话与儿童思维的发展》第二章摘要。
Please click on the 'View document' link below to view synopsis (PDF, 3 pages, 0.08 MB)
请点击下面的查看文档链接，阅读这篇摘要。
The development of children's thinking is characterised by Tharp and Gallimore as one of guided reinvention. Using the example of language acquisition, they point out that children are typically not taught
in any formal sense to use and understand their first language: it is
not a matter of cultural transmission by direct instruction. But
equally clearly children do not invent language use for
themselves, or develop it spontaneously. They develop it in and through
interactions (more or less structured as the case may be) with those
around them. Tharp and Gallimore offer guided reinvention as a general
model for cognitive development. Using the concept of scaffolding they
argue that guided reinvention and individual self-supported competence in any field may come about only after successful performance
has been established by assisted learning in the child's ZPD. The
adult's role as teacher is to guide and assist the learner's
performance through successive stages of the ZPD.
萨普和加利摩尔将儿童思维的发展的特征描述为一种指导下的再创造。使用语言习得的例子，他们指出儿童在使用和理解其母语的时候，一般没有得到任何正规意义上的教学：这不是一个直接教导的文化传播问题。但同样清楚的是，儿童并没有刻意发明或自发发展出他们自己使用的语言。他们通过与其周围的人互动（程度视情况而定）来发展语言。萨普和加利摩尔提出，指导下的再创造是认知发展的一般模型。他们声称，通过对脚手架这个概念的使用，指导下的再创造和个体的自我支持能力，在任何领域，只有在儿童的最近发展区辅助学习取得成功之后，才有可能跟随成功而发生。成年人的教师作用是通过持续不断的最近发展区阶段，指导和帮助学习者的行为。
Tharp and Gallimore characterise the ZPD not as a single growing point for an individual but as a multitude of growing edges
which relate to all areas of developing competence. Growing edges are
not simply a quality of the child; they are an expression of his or her
various activities and social relationships. For example, discovering
and practising how diagrams are used in the company of his mother and
brother is just one of Joe's growing edges. When you study the final
episode of ‘Joe's day’ you will begin to appreciate just how many of
these growing edges he experiences during his interactions with members
of his family in any one day.
萨普和加利摩尔将最近发展区的特征描述为，不是个体的单个成长点，而是于所有能力发展领域有关的多个成长边。成长边不只是儿童的一种品质，他们是他各种活动和社会关系的表达。比如，对于母亲和兄弟是如何使用图例，看懂和实践仅仅是小乔的一条成长边。在你学习《小乔的一天》最后一节时，你会开始认识到，他在任何一天与其家庭成员互动中体验到的成长边究竟有多少。
The video episodes from Joe's day also illustrate an issue which Tharp and Gallimore touch upon when they talk about ontogenesis and microgenesis (Learning Relationship in the Classroom,
p. 102). We could see the whole history of development in the child
(ontogenesis) as a single, age-related process, going from Tharp and
Gallimore's ‘stage 1’ (where assistance is provided by more capable
others) through ‘stage 2’ (where assistance is provided by the self) to
eventual ‘internalisation’ in ‘stage 3’. In some ways this seems to fit
the facts: infants and younger children are heavily dependent on others
for help; around four to six years of age they engage in a great deal
of ‘talking to themselves’ out loud, which diminishes as they become
more self-sufficient learners during the school years. This would be to
take Vygotsky's story at the ontogenetic level, relating it to
development across the lifespan.
来自《小乔的一天》的视频，也说明了一个问题，萨普和加利摩尔在他们谈及个体发展和微观变化时简单提及过（课堂中的学习关系，P102）。我们可以将这个小孩的整个发育过程（个体发展）看作一个单一的年龄相关的过程，从萨普和加利摩尔的第一阶段（在这里，辅导是由更有力者提供的）到第二阶段（在这里辅导是由学习者自身提供的）到第三阶段最后的“内化”。在某些方面这似乎符合事实：婴幼儿非常依赖于他人的帮助，四到六岁时，他们总是在大声地自言自语，知道他们在学校变得更为自信，这种情况才减少。按照维果茨基的说法，这将处在个体发育阶段，与其一生的成长都有关系。
Equally
though, at the ‘microgenetic’ level we could take the view that these
three stages apply to learning at whatever age it occurs. For example,
when we encounter a new learning situation as adults our learning
experiences can be described in the same terms. Looked at from this
point of view, age may in fact make rather little difference to the
process and what is at issue may be the level of one's expertise in
relation to the particular problem. The difference between adults and
children lies with the fact that adults have access to more
sophisticated tools and strategies to aid them through the learning
process.
尽管同样处在微观变化阶段，我们可以认为，应用于学习的这三个阶段不论在什么年纪都会发生。比如，当我们成年以后遭遇到新的学习状况，可以用同样的词汇描述我们的学习体验。从这个角度来看，年龄在实际上可能对这个过程没有什么影响，争论的焦点是学习者体验的程度是否与具体问题有关。成年人和儿童的区别在于这样一个事实，为帮助通过学习过程，成年人能够获得更复杂的工具和策略。
When we looked at Joe's
attempts to build the Lego model we were attempting to establish, at a
microgenetic level, various teaching and learning processes taking
place in relation to a particular problem. Tharp and Gallimore seem to
suggest that while there is an overall ontogenetic development which
follows the course they outline in their description of the four stages
of the ZPD, this outline will apply equally well to microgenetic
learning processes at any point in the lifespan (or indeed at any point
in a child's day). So, for a simple skill Joe may be at stage 4, but
for a more complex skill he will be at stage 1.
当我们看到小乔试图建造乐高模型，我们也试图在微观变化层面建立起多种与具体问题有关的教学过程。萨普和加利摩尔似乎表明，尽管有一个总体的个体发展过程，他们坚持在其叙述中描绘出最近发展区这四个阶段的大致轮廓，在人一生的任何阶段（或者确切的说在一个儿童的任何一天），这个大致轮廓也同样很好的适用于微观变化学习过程。因此，对于一个简单技能，小乔可能处在第四阶段，但是对于一个比较复杂的技能，他可能出在第一阶段。
Activity 1
活动一
Consider
the plausibility of Tharp and Gallimore's suggestion in relation to
your own experience. Reflect on some of your adult learning
experiences, particularly any that involve new skills, such as learning
to drive a car or using a computer. How well does an account in terms
of a ZPD, or more specifically in terms of Tharp and Gallimore's
stages, fit with your recollection of your learning experience?
考虑萨普和加利摩尔的说法在你身上是否行得通。反思你的一些成年学习体验，尤其是涉及到新技能，比如学习开车或者使用计算机。最近发展区的说法有多正确？或者更确切一点，按照萨普和加利摩尔的阶段说法，有多符合你对你学习体验的认识？
At
the end of their article Tharp and Gallimore draw a contrast between
two types of interaction: parents with children in the home, and
teachers with children in the school. This alerts us to the very
different circumstances in which teaching and learning are carried out.
Schools are institutions specifically contrived to achieve learning,
but on the face of it some features of the classroom setting seem
ill-suited to the kind of teaching and learning processes we have been
looking at with younger children. What do we know of the similarities
and differences between these two settings, and to what extent can the
same theoretical approach deal with both? These are two of the issues
addressed in the next reading.
在其文章末尾，萨普和加利摩尔在两类互动当中做了一个对比：家长与儿童在家中的互动，教师与儿童在学校的互动。这提醒我们，发生教学的环境变化非常大。学校是为实现学习而特别设计的体系，但是从表面上看，课堂的某些特征并不适合于我们在幼儿身上见到的教学过程。我们所知道的这两种设施有何异同，以及使用同一理论可以对这两者处理到什么程度？这将是接下来的阅读材料要解决的问题。
Reading 3
阅读材料三
Read Chapter 9 of Cultural Worlds of Early Childhood,
‘Aspects of teaching and learning’, by David Wood, attached below. In
this reading Wood addresses three main issues. First is the concept of ground rules.
Consider what Wood means by this, and how useful it is for comparing
different contexts of teaching and learning. Next, pay attention to
Wood's arguments concerning levels of control and contingency in
relation to teacher competence. These ideas should be easier to
understand now that you have applied them in analysing Videos 1 and 2
of ‘Joe's day’. What experimental evidence is there to support Wood's
claims for the importance of contingency? Finally Wood offers a
critique of teachers’ questioning strategies, and suggests how these
might be improved.
阅读附后的《幼儿早期的文化世界》第九章，戴维·伍德著作《教与学的方方面面》。在此阅读材料中伍德主要处理三个问题。首先就是基本规则的概念。考虑伍德在这里的意思是什么，在比较不同的教学环境时是如何应用它的。接下来，关注伍德有关控制程度和偶发性有关教师能力的论点。你现在应该比较容易理解这些观念，因为你已经将其用于分析“小乔的一天”视频一、视频二。有什么实验上的证据可以支持伍德对偶发性的重要性的声明？最后，伍德批评了教师们的提问策略，并建议如何改进。
Aspects of teaching and learning (PDF, 21 pages, 0.4 MB)
教与学的方方面面（PDF，21页，0.4MB）
The main question Wood addresses in Reading 3
is, ‘What is the nature of effective instruction?’ Towards the
beginning of the reading he makes a distinction between ‘spontaneous’
teaching and learning interactions at home, and ‘contrived’ encounters
in schools and psychological experiments. The two types of encounter
make different demands on adults and children, and each follows its own
set of distinctive ground rules.
伍德在阅读材料三中所陈述的主要问题是“有效教学的本质是什么？”大约在阅读材料开始部分，他对家中的自然教—学互动和学校和心理实验环境下的人为教学情况做了区别。这两类情况对成年人和儿童提出了不同的要求，而且每一类都服从于自身的一套独特的基本规则。
Like
Donaldson (1978) Wood argues that children initially find school
learning difficult for two reasons. The first is that the ground rules
and discourses of the classroom are very different from those to which
children are accustomed outside school. The second is that the forms of
instruction teachers use are very different from those used by parents.
Taking Vygotsky's theory as his conceptual framework, and using
examples from his own experimental work on teaching and learning
interactions between mothers and their pre-school children, Wood
identifies key features of effective, contingent teaching and learning
encounters.
像唐纳森（1978）伍德所说的，儿童最初发现学校学习的困难有两个。首先是对于学生而言，学校的基本规则和课堂交流与熟悉的校外世界非常不同。其次是教师使用的各种教学形式与家长使用的有很大差异。以维果茨基理论为其概念框架，使用来自他与母亲们及其学前儿童的教学互动经验中的例子，伍德确认了有效的团队教学活动的关键特征。
Drawing on the work of
Tizard and Hughes (1984) he claims that contingent instruction is more
likely to take place in family contexts. Parents have privileged access
to their children's particular learning needs and histories. This
knowledge provides the conditions for the establishment of shared
meanings, or intersubjectivities, which, Wood suggests, are the bedrock of contingent instruction.
根据蒂泽德和休斯的工作（1984），他宣称，群体教学更有可能发生在家庭环境中。家长优先接触到子女的具体学习需求和经历。伍德表示，这方面知识为共享的含义或主体间性提供了条件，而共享的含义或主体间性则是群体教学的基础。
Wood
next analyses the ways in which teachers use questions. He offers
reasons as to why traditional styles of questioning are not
particularly effective in eliciting ‘high cognitive’ responses from
children – ‘The more they question, the less children say’ (p. 172) –
and suggests a set of guidelines for the effective use of questioning
based on the features of contingent interaction. If, after you have
studied Wood's critique of classroom teaching you feel that he has been
somewhat unfair on teachers, you should note that at the end of his
chapter he comments as follows:
伍德接下来分析了教师使用提问的方式。他为为什么传统的提问方式在引发儿童的高认知回应方面并不具备明显效果这个问题给出了原因——“他们问得越多，儿童说得越少”（p. 172）——并在认知互动的基础上为有效使用提问提出了一套准则。如果，在你研究了伍德对课堂教学的批评之后，你觉得对教师有些不公平，那么你应该注意到他在这一章末尾做出如下说明：
If
we find ourselves dissatisfied with the interactions that take place in
such institutions [schools], measured against what we take to be the
optimum contexts for learning [the home], then we must question not
simply the teacher's ‘skills’ but the form of the institution within
which we expect these to be deployed.如果我们对发生在这些体制（学校）中的互动表示不满，谨慎的反对我们认为是最好的学习环境（家庭），那么我们必须做的不仅仅是质疑教师的技能，而且还要质疑这种我们希望将技能应用其中的体制的形式。
(Cultural Worlds of Early Childhood, p. 175)
（早期儿童的文化世界，P175）
Reading 4
阅读材料四
Read Chapter 10 of Cultural Worlds of Early Childhood,
‘Adult-child interaction, joint problem solving and the structure of
co-operation’, by Mariette Hoogsteder, Robert Maier and Ed Elbers,
attached below.
阅读附后的《早期儿童的文化世界》第十章，马瑞迪·胡戈斯特德、罗伯特·迈尔和艾德·艾尔贝斯所著《成年人—儿童互动，共同解决问题以及合作的结构》。
Adult-child interaction, joint problem solving and the structure of cooperation (PDF, 18 pages, 0.4 MB)
成年人—儿童互动，共同解决问题以及合作的结构（GDoc，18页）
Hoogsteder et al. argue that
research in the post-Vygotskian tradition has emphasised the
uni-directional transmission of skills and knowledge from adult to
learner during the course of asymmetrical interactions. The metaphor of
scaffolding conveys an image of the child's learning being
propped up by an omniscient adult who invariably directs and controls
the interaction. The contribution of the child has been ignored.
Hoogstedder et al. argue that allocation of a passive role to the child
oversimplifies the nature of teaching and learning interactions.
胡戈斯特德等人认为，在后维果茨基传统的研究强调技能和知识在不对称的相互作用过程中，从成年人到学习者的单向传输。脚手架隐喻表达了一种形象，儿童的学习得到全能的成年人的支持，成年人一成不变的引导和控制着互动。儿童的作用被忽略了。胡戈斯特德等人认为，为儿童安排的被动角色使得教—学互动的性质被过度单纯化了。
They describe teaching and learning interactions as ‘exercises in collectivity’ which involve both child and
adult in processes of negotiation, disagreement, the exchange and
sharing of information, judgement and decision making and evaluation of
one another's contributions. For example a child may decide to ignore
an adult's instructions if they do not fit in with his or her goal.
Similarly, an adult may ignore a child's contribution if it does not
conform to the agenda the adult wishes to set. In this manner, children
not only learn about the task in hand, they also learn about the nature of co-operation and how to participate in problem solving as a joint enterprise.
他们将教—学互动描绘成“集体训练”，其中涉及到儿童和成年人双方的谈判、争执、交换与分享信息、判断语句额定，以及对他人作用的评估的过程。比如，如果成年人的指示并不适合某儿童的目标，他可能决定忽略这些指示。同样的，如果某儿童并不服从成年人所希望的进度安排，成年人也可能忽略儿童的作用。在这种形式下，儿童不仅仅学习手头任务，他们还学习合作的本质，以及如何以联合团队的形式参与到问题解决当中。
Hoogstedder
et al. criticise the scaffolding metaphor on the grounds that it
suggests a universal format for teaching and learning interactions. In
support of their argument that ‘Every culture provides adults and
children with a repertoire of interaction formats or patterns’, they
draw on experimental observations of three- to five-year-old children
solving various construction tasks with a parent or caregiver. These
observations showed that Dutch parents and children use three
distinctly different modes of interaction: the playful mode; the
economic and efficient mode and the didactic mode.
胡戈斯特德等人批评脚手架隐喻的理由是，该隐喻意味着有一个通用的教学互动形式。支持他们论点的有，“每一种文化都为成年人和儿童提供了丰富多彩的互动形式或模式”，他们实验观察三至五岁儿童与家长或保姆共同解决各种人工设计的任务。这些观察显示，荷兰家长和儿童使用三种明显不同的互动模式：嬉戏模式；经济而高效模式以及训导模式。
Video 3: Cooking with Dad
视频三：与爸爸一起做饭
Now
watch Video 3 – the final episode in ‘Joe's day’. Using the criteria
defined by Hoogstedder et al. for distinguishing and classifying modes
of interaction (p. 181) see if you can arrive at a description of the
predominant mode operating between Joe and his father.
现在观看视频三——《小乔的一天》最后的节目。运用胡戈斯特德等人定义的标准（第一八一页），区分并分类互动模式，看看你是否能够对小乔及其父亲之间出色的操作模式做出描述。
As
you did in the earlier video activities you should watch the whole
episode through once to familiarise yourself with what is going on
before you attempt to analyse it. Use the transcript supplied to help
you with your analysis. Draw a line across the transcript every time
you judge that the mode of interaction changes, and make a note of
which mode is represented by these segments of the transcript.
正如你在前面的视频活动中所作那样，你应该观看整个情节一次，熟悉正在发生的事情，然后再去尝试分析它。利用提供的字幕，帮助你进行分析。当你觉得互动模式发生改变的时候，在相应的字幕下面划线，并记下相应字幕所代表的互动模式。
Cooking with dad
与爸爸一起做饭
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Hoogstedder
et al. seem to suggest that while they identified three distinct
patterns of interaction, any one parent and child pair
characteristically use only one of these modes. In Video 3, however,
you can observe all three patterns. The probable reason why Hoogstedder
et al. observed only one pattern of interaction per adult/child pair
lies in the way their study was designed. They observed children and
caregivers in a single interactional context, solving construction
tasks. Had they varied the contexts to include different types of task,
or studied some of the more naturally occurring interactions which take
place in families (such as joint cooking episodes), they might have
reached a different conclusion.
胡戈斯特德等人似乎表明，虽然他们鉴定出三种明显不同的互动模式，任何一位家长和儿童结对特意只使用其中一种。然而，在视频三中，这三种模式你都可以观察到。而胡戈斯特德等人，对每一对长幼结对，仅观察到一种互动模式，其原因可能在于他们所设计的研究方式。他们观察儿童及其保姆，在单一互动环境下解决建设任务。如果他们改变环境，使之包含不同类型的任务，或者研究一些发生更为自然的互动，比如发生在家庭里的互动（比如一起做饭的节目），他们可能就会得出不同的结论
3.2 Guided participation – a cultural perspective
3.2 引导参与——一种文化视角
So
far, we've looked at some of the key concepts of a socio-cultural
approach to teaching and learning, and explored various ways of
analysing the interaction sequences on the video. While scaffolding and
the ZPD, levels of control and contingency have provided a powerful
framework for research in this area, Hoogstedder et al. draw attention
to the possibility that the styles of interaction reported from
empirical research, and illustrated in the video, reflect particular
cultural practices in the specific contexts studied. So laboratory
studies (as described by David Wood, Cultural Worlds of Early Childhood,
pp. 157–77) that specifically ask parents to help their children
complete a puzzle encourage those parents to engage in certain kinds of
dyadic, goal-oriented exchange. In home settings (as studied by
Hoogstedder et al.) where the goals and timescale of the interaction
are less constrained, mothers and their children are observed to engage
in more negotiation and to use a wider repertoire of interactive styles
according to their purposes. Even within the relatively restricted
contexts filmed for the video, you can see Joe engaging in
qualitatively different levels of involvement in the activity and using
different communication modes according to who he is with and what he
is doing.
到目前为止，我们审查过一些社会文化教学及学习方法相关关键概念，探究过视频中依次发生的互动的诸多分析方法。虽然脚手架和最近发展区，控制的程度和偶发事件，都为该领域的研究提供了功能强大的框架，但是胡戈斯特德等人专注于这样一种可能性，即这段视频中展示出来的，以及实证研究报告中的互动风格，反映了特定文化在特定学习环境中的实践。因此，实验室研究（正如戴维·伍德在《儿童早期的文化世界》第157-177页所描述那样）特别要求家长帮助其子女完成一道难题，鼓励家长参与进某种具体的两人之间的目标导向的交流。在家庭环境中（如胡戈斯特德等人的研究），互动的目标和时间表较少拘束，观察到母亲及其子女进行更多协商，以及根据自身目的使用更广泛的互动类型。即使在相对受限的环境中拍摄的视频，你也能看到小乔参与活动的品质程度不一，根据他的伙伴和工作的不同，使用不同的交流模式。
Video 4: People in Joe's day
视频四：小乔的一天中的人们
Watch
Videos 1, 2 and 4. Compare Joe with Mum, with Owen and with Hannah and
note the different styles of interaction he employs.
观看视频一、二、四。比较小乔和妈妈、欧文、汉娜时的表现，记下他使用的互动的不同风格。
Lego with mum
与妈妈玩乐高积木
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Lego with brother
与哥哥玩乐高积木
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Building a tower
建一座塔
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Following up this idea,
examine the proposal that the general skill of knowing how to act
collaboratively in a teaching-learning exchange is a cultural
universal, but that specific forms of that exchange may be context
specific. Consider the implication of this proposal for research, in
terms of the extent to which there may be dangers in generalising from
interactive styles observed in particular contexts, or in particular
cultural settings. This applies as much to your own project work as to
the larger scale studies included in the module.
贯彻这一思想，检查知道如何在教—学交流中共同活动的一般技能这一建议，在各文化中都很普遍，但是具体的交流形式可能因人而异。考虑这一建议对于研究的背后意义，就程度而言，在概括特定环境、特定文化背景中观察到的互动类型时，可能会有危险。这一思想，在本模块中包含的大尺度研究中起的作用，与在你自己的小项目中期的作用是一样的。
One
researcher who has been particularly sensitive to these issues is
Barbara Rogoff. While the research carried out by her team has been
strongly influenced by ideas about the ZPD and scaffolding, they have
been critical of the narrow framework of assumptions about education,
teaching and learning within which Vygotskian ideas have been developed:
一名研究人员对这些问题一直特别敏感，他叫做芭芭拉·罗戈夫。虽然他的小组完成该项研究，由于他的小组受到最近发展区和脚手架的巨大影响，他们受到狭隘框架假说的批评，这种假说涉及教育、教学和学习，由维果茨基主义者的思想发展而来：
Ironically,
the sociohistorical school's formulation of the relation between
individual, social, and cultural processes is not only its strength but
its weakness. Despite the theory's emphasis on context and society, it
nonetheless maintained assumptions regarding the contexts and societal
approaches that are most valuable. Vygotsky focused on the sort of
language and analysis that characterize academic learning, consistent
with the agenda of his nation at the time …
讽刺的是，在学校的形成个体、社会和文化过程之间的关系，这种形成过程，其社会历史学意义不仅在于其优点，也在于其缺点。尽管该理论强调背景与社会，但它还是维护了有关背景和社会方法的假说，这是最有价值的。维果茨基理论的重点在于这样一种语言和分析，即记录学术学习的特征，与当时他国家的发展相一致……
（儿童早期的文化世界，第二二八页）
Rogoff
(1990) has proposed the concept of ‘guided participation’ as a more
inclusive framework for examining the way children are initiated into
cognitive and social skills. It is more inclusive in two respects: it
acknowledges variations not only in communicative styles and role
relationships between learners and teachers but also in the purposes of
learning and goals of development:
罗戈夫（1990）提出“引导参与”的概念，作为检查儿童主动认知和社会技能的更加包容的框架。他在两个方面更具包容性：他承认不仅在学习者和教师的交流方式、任务关系上存在变化，而且在学习目的、发展目标上也有变化：
The
developmental endpoint that has traditionally anchored cognitive
developmental theories – skill in academic activities such as formal
operational reasoning and scientific, mathematical, and literate
practices – is one valuable goal of development, but one that is tied
to its contexts and culture, as is any other goal or endpoint of
development valued by a community.
关于发展终点，传统抛锚认知发展理论——学术活动中的技能诸如正式运作推论和科学，数学、文学实践——是一重要的发展目标，但是这是与其背景及文化相关联的，正如受到社会重视的其他发展目标或终点。
Each
community's valued skills constitute the local goals of development …
In the final analysis, it is not possible to determine whether the
goals or practices of one society are more adaptive than those of
another, as judgments of adaptation cannot be separated from values.
每一个社会的重要技能构成了发展的本地目标……归根结底，不可能确定一个社会的目标或实践是否比另一种更合适，正如对适应性的判断不能脱离价值一样。
（罗戈夫，1990，第十二页）
In
the next reading Rogoff et al. refer to the initial findings from a
major cross-cultural study in Guatemala, India, Turkey and the USA
(data reported as a monograph, Rogoff, Mistry, Göncü and Mosier, 1993).
The main focus of the reading is a comparison of just two early
childhood contexts – parents and children in Mayan communities
(Guatemala) and in Salt Lake City (USA). Towards the end of the reading
Rogoff et al. offer two brief, contrasting case studies of mothers with
their 20-month-olds, playing with a nesting doll (like a Russian doll).
在接下来的阅读材料中，罗戈夫等人谈及一项在危地马拉，印度，土耳其和美国实施的重大的跨文化研究的最初发现（数据报告专著，Rogoff, Mistry, Göncü and Mosier, 1993）。本篇阅读材料的焦点是对比两种早期儿童环境——玛雅人社会（危地马拉）和盐湖城（美国）的家长与儿童。在阅读材料末尾，罗戈夫等人提供了两份简单的对照案例研究，研究母亲及其二十个月大小婴儿一起玩嵌套娃娃（类似于俄罗斯娃娃）。
Reading 5 and video
阅读材料五及视频
Read Chapter 13 of Cultural Worlds of Early Childhood,
‘Toddlers' guided participation with their caregivers in cultural
activity’, by Barbara Rogoff, Christine Mosier, Jayanthi Mistry and
Artin Göncü, attached below.
阅读《儿童早期的文化世界》第十三章，芭芭拉·罗戈夫等人写的《抚育者引导幼儿参与文化活动》，全文附后。
When
you reach the relevant sections of the reading, look at Video 5, ‘An
interview with Professor Barbara Rogoff’. Using video sequences of
parents and children she collected for this study, Professor Rogoff
draws our attention to differences between the interactional, and
instructional styles of American and Mayan mothers.
当你读到相应章节时，观看视频五，《芭芭拉·罗戈夫教授访谈》。利用他为该研究收集的一系列家长与儿童视频，罗戈夫教授促使我们注意到互动之间的区别，以及美国和玛雅人母亲的教育风格之间的区别。
Toddlers' guided participation with their caregivers in cultural activity (PDF, 25 pages, 0.7 MB)
抚育者引导幼儿参与文化活动（Google Docs）
An interview with Professor Barbara Rogoff
芭芭拉·罗戈夫教授访谈
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Rogoff et al. argue that
the process of guided participation is universal, but that there are
important cultural variations related to the goals of development and
the nature of involvement between children and adults. They highlight
the contrasting experiences of developing skills and competencies in
the two developmental niches (Mayan and Salt Lake City communities),
drawing particular attention to the extent to which children observe
and participate in ongoing adult activities, the extent to which adults
adopt didactic and playful modes, and the use of language.
罗戈夫等人称，引导参与的过程是普遍的，但是存在有与发展目标以及儿童和成年人之间的介入性质相关的，很重要的文化差异。他们强调对比技能发展的经验、两处发展区域（玛雅和盐湖城社会）的能力，特别注意儿童观察和参与进成年人当下活动的程度，成年人采用教育和玩乐模式的程度，以及语言的使用情况。
Their
main conclusions from the larger study (Rogoff et al., 1993) are that
in contexts where children participate in adults’ social and work
activities, children showed intrinsic motivation to identify with adult
activity, and learned mainly through observation and modelling of
skills. The caregiver's role was to support their activity. By
contrast, in communities in which children are generally segregated
from adult work activities, caregivers took more responsibility for
managing children's activities and encouraging their motivation. In
these communities Rogoff observed adults engaging in more explicit
instruction, with more verbal communication as well as more playful
activity:
他们来自较大研究（罗戈夫等人，1993）的主要结论是，在儿童参与成年人的社会和工作活动背景下，儿童展现出认同成年人活动的内在动机，其学习主要是通过对技能的观察和模仿。照顾者的角色是支持他们的活动。相比之下，在儿童一般与成年人工作相分隔的社会中，照顾者要为管理儿童的活动承担更多责任，更多的去鼓励其动机。在这些社会中，罗戈夫观察到成年人发出的指令更加明确，有更多的语言交流，更好玩的活动：
In
communities where they are segregated from adult activities, children's
learning may be organized by adults’ teaching of lessons and provision
of motivational management out of the context of adult practice; in
communities in which children are integrated in adult settings,
learning can occur through active observation and participation by the
children with responsive assistance from caregivers.
在这种社会中，儿童是被隔离在成年人活动之外的，儿童的学习可在成年人的授课中，以及成年人实践背景之外提供的激励管理中，得到管理；在这种社会中，儿童在成年人的设施中得到集中管理，学习可以通过儿童的积极观察和实践与照顾者的辅助响应，得以发生。
（罗戈夫等人，1993，第一五一页）
3.3 Applying the concept of guided participation
3.3 应用引导参与这个概念
Before
leaving Rogoff's work, we'd like to look a little more closely at the
analytic framework she calls guided participation. In Reading 5 Rogoff
et al. summarise two broad features, as described below.
在离开罗格夫的工作之前，我们打算寻找与他称为引导参与的分析框架更密切的例子。在阅读五材料中，罗格夫等人总结了两大特点，分述如下。
Making connections between the known and the new
在已知与未知之间建立联系
Rogoff
builds on the concept of intersubjectivity to emphasise the shared
history, communicative strategies and purposes in a learning
relationship that facilitate joint focus and effective collaboration.
Laboratory studies of teaching, learning and problem solving are often
based on a task or skill that is quite new to participants. In everyday
life, such complete novelty is rare. Encountering a new situation, one
of the first things that teachers and learners try to do is to make
sense of it in terms of their past experiences. Rogoff has summarised
this feature as follows:
罗格夫的概念建立在主体间性概念基础上，强调共同的历史，畅谈的策略，促进共同关注和有效合作，在学习关系中的用途。在实验室对教学、学习和解决问题的研究，多基于对参与者全新的任务或技能。在日常生活中，这样完全崭新的任务或技能是很少见的。遇到新状况，教师和学习和首先要做的事情就是根据自己过去的经验来理解它。罗格夫总结这一特点如下：
For
very young children, the bridging role of adults involves assisting children in understanding how to act in new situations by provision of emotional cues regarding the nature of the situation, non-verbal models of how to behave, verbal and non-verbal interpretations of behaviour and events, and verbal labels to classify objects and events. All of these adult activities are coupled with young children's efforts (intentional or not) to pick up information about the nature of situations and their caregivers.对于非常年幼的儿童，成年人的沟通任务包括，通过提供有关状况性质的表情暗示、如何举止的非语言示范、对行为和事情的语言和非语言解释、口头分类物体和事情，帮助儿童理解如何在新状况中行动。成年人的所有这些活动，还要加上幼儿获取有关状况性质及其照顾者信息的努力（有意或无意）。
(Rogoff, 1990)
（罗格夫，1990）
As we saw in Reading 5 (Cultural Worlds of Early Childhood,
pp. 230–31) Rogoff et al. illustrate social referencing as an example
of non-verbal bridging. Once children become verbally competent, most
bridging at home and especially in classrooms is by verbal referencing.
正如我们在阅读材料五（儿童早期的文化世界，第230-231页）中所见，罗格夫等人将社会性参照描述成非语言沟通的例子。一旦儿童能够胜任语言，家里大多数沟通，特别是在教室里的沟通，都是运用语言。
Collaborative structuring (sometimes called ‘structuring situations and transferring responsibility’)
共同整理（有时称为“整理状况，移交责任”）
Rogoff et al. argue that parents and other caregivers are active in structuring
children's environment according to their perceived goals for
development. There are several levels of structure. At a macro level is
the overall timetable of the child's day (the balance of time for play,
tasks, feeding, washing, resting, etc.), the opportunities for
participation in specific cultural activities and the extent to which
these activities are separated/integrated. At a micro level is the way
specific tasks and activities are adapted to the perceived capacities
of the child, broken down into manageable elements through interactions
that enable the child to achieve a goal or complete a task. As children
become more competent so responsibility may be transferred from teacher
to learner. The distinctive feature of Rogoff's framework is
acknowledgement that adult and child roles are variable according to
contexts and goals as well as children's status and role. In some
contexts they may be ascribed by tradition or by the status
differential between teacher and taught. In other contexts, especially
in ‘child-centred’ informal settings, they may be subject to continuous
renegotiation.
罗格夫等人认为，家长和其他照顾者根据自己认为的发展目标，主动整理儿童的环境。整理，分几个层次。在宏观层面上是儿童一天的整体时间表（平衡游戏、任务、进食、洗漱、休息等时间），参与特定文化活动的机会，以及这些活动独立/合作的程度。在微观层面上是具体任务活动适应儿童的认知能力的途径，通过互动，允许儿童实现目标完成任务，细分为若干可管理元素。由于儿童越发胜任工作，因此责任就从教师转移到学习者身上。罗格夫框架最显著的特征是，成年人和儿童的角色可以根据环境、目标以及儿童的地位角色发生变化。在某些情况下，他们会归咎于传统势力和教师与教学活动之间的地位差别。在其他情况下，尤其是在“以儿童为中心”的非正式场合，他们会不断重新商议。
Activity 2: Analysing cooking with Dad
活动二：分析《与爸爸一起烹饪》
Try
applying the concepts of guided participation to the video sequence of
Joe cooking with his father Philip (Video 3). Look for both verbal and
non-verbal examples of the following:
尝试将引导参与概念运用到小乔与其父亲菲利普一起做蛋糕的视频（视频三）。寻找以下活动的语言和非语言实例：
Building bridges
架设桥梁
Philip says: ‘Do you remember, we have to cream it …’
菲利普说：“还记得不，我们要搅拌它……”
Joe says ‘You need a driver [mixer].’
小乔说：“你需要一台机器（搅拌器）”
Structuring at a macro level
从宏观层面上整理
Look
at the way Philip organises the ingredients and utensils, brings
elements of the task in and out of Joe's immediate view, sequences the
task into a series of stages, and introduces each in turn.
注意菲利普安排成份和器皿，使用任务要求的材料，脱离小乔当前视线，将任务分解成一系列步骤，每一步骤逐一介绍的方法。
Structuring at a micro level
从微观层面上整理
Look
at the way Philip ‘reduces the degrees of freedom’ so that Joe can
participate at each stage, by asking him to do a specific action and
even by taking hold of his hand.
注意菲利普“减少自由程度”的方式，要求小乔完成一项具体动作，甚至抓着小乔的手来完成，这样使得小乔能参与每一阶段。
Wood's levels of control could also be applied here. But how far is Joe learning through observing his father and how far through being instructed in each element of the cake-making process?
伍德的控制水平也可以用在这里。但是小乔通过观察他父亲能学到什么程度，在做蛋糕过程中每一环节都受到指示，能学到什么程度？
Transferring responsibility
移交责任
When Philip invites Joe to do something, and where he does not: ‘There, you have a go.’
菲利普邀请小乔做些他没有做过的事情时：“去，你去试一下。”
Where Joe makes a bid to be given responsibility, or asks for more help: ‘l can't how to do it.’
当小乔设法撇开责任，或请求更多帮助时：“我不知道怎么做。”
Do this
完成以下任务
Now you have completed this unit, you might like to:
现在你已经完成本单元，你可能会喜欢：
Post a message to the unit forum.
- 去单元论坛发表帖子，
Review or add to your Learning Journal.
- 回顾并张贴到你的学习日记中。
Rate this unit.
- 评价本单元
Try this
尝试以下任务
You might also like to:
你可能还会喜欢：
Find out more about the related Open University course
- 了解更多与开放大学课程有关的信息
Book a FlashMeeting to talk live with other learners
- 预订FlashMeeting，与他人实时聊天
Create a Knowledge Map to summarise this topic.
- 创建一份知识图，总结这一课题
References
参考文献
Donaldson, M. (1978) Children's Minds, London, Fontana.
O'Connell,
B. and Bretherton, I. (1984) ‘Toddlers’ play alone and with mother: the
role of maternal guidance’, in Bretherton, I. (ed.) Symbolic Play: the development of social understanding, London, Academic Press.
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Acknowledgements
致谢
The material acknowledged below is Proprietary and not subject to Creative Commons licence (see terms and conditions):
Mercer, N., and Littleton, K. (2007): pp. 15–17 from Dialogue and the Development of the Children's Thinking: A Sociocultural Approach by Neil Mercer and Karen Littleton, published by Routledge © (2007) Neil Mercer and Karen Littleton.
The material acknowledged below is contained in the reader: Cultural worlds of early childhood, edited by Martin Woodhead, Dorothy Faulkner and Karen Littleton, published by Routledge (1988) in association with The Open University. Copyright © 1988 The Open University, compilation, original and editorial matter. This is one of three readers which have been specially prepared for The Open University MA Course: ED840 Child Development in Families, Schools and Society.
The material below is Proprietary and used under licence (see terms and conditions) and not subject to Creative Commons Licence.
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following for permission to reproduce material:
David Wood: ‘Aspects of teaching and learning’ which first appeared in Richards, M. and Light, P. (eds) Children of Social Worlds, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1986, pp. 191–212.
Mariette Hoogsteder, Robert Maier and Ed Elbers:
‘Adult-child interaction, joint problem solving and structure of
cooperation’, – an edited version of an article that appeared in Learning and Instruction, 6(4), 1996.
Barbara Rogoff, Christine Mosier, Jayanthi
Mistsry and Artin Göncü: ‘Toddlers' guided participation with their
caregivers in cultural activity’, edited version of chapter that
appeared in Contexts for Learning: Sociocultural Dynamics in Children's Development, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
H. Rudolph Schaffer (1996) ‘Coginitive Socialization’ in Social Development, Blackwell Publishers Limited, pp 234–40. Copyright © H Rudolph Schaffer.
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