翻译《开放大学课程E844_1 评估学校课堂讨论》
Evaluating school classroom discussion
评估学校课堂讨论
Time: 9 hours
时间：九小时
Level: Advanced- 级别：高级
Introduction
前言
Introduction- 前言
- This unit draws attention to the
value of a sociocultural understanding of spoken language in the
processes of teaching and learning. It focuses upon how language can be
used for persuasion, control and... - 本单元关注于教与学过程中谈话的社会及文化理解的价值。这一价值侧重于如何利用语言进行说服、控制以及……
1 Language as a tool for social action
语言作为社会活动的工具
- 1.1 Persuasion, control and argument
- 1.1 说服、控制以及论证
- The Reading below contains
examples of interaction that you may or may not be familiar with. The
book that it comes from is concerned with how people use language in
many kinds of situations to solve problems... - 以下阅读材料包含你熟悉或不熟悉的互动示例。这本书的目的是关注人们如何在各种情况下使用语言解决问题……
- 1.2 Development through dialogue
- 通过对话展开工作
- Now read Chapter 6, ‘Development through dialogue’, of the set book Words and Minds. As you read, pay special attention to:
- 现在阅读书籍《词汇与思想》第六章《通过对话展开工作》。在你阅读的时候，特别注意：
2 Evaluating classroom discussion
评估课堂讨论
- 2.1 Evaluating discussion
- 2.1 评估讨论
- The discussion of talk amongst
children in Chapter 6 of Words and Minds is concerned with the adequacy
of that talk for ‘getting things done’. The next activity will allow
you to attempt a reduced version... - 《词汇与思想》第六章中的儿童之间的谈话讨论，关注的是为了达成目标而进行的交谈是否足够。接下来的活动将让你尝试一个简化版本……
- 2.2 Evaluating discussion (continued)
- 2.2 评估讨论（续）
- The quality of discussion amongst students can be evaluated by carrying out the following activity.
- 要评估学生之间讨论的质量，可以进行以下活动。
References and Acknowledgements
参考文献与致谢
- References
- 参考文献
- Acknowledgements
- 致谢
Introduction
前言
This unit draws attention to the value of a
sociocultural understanding of spoken language in the processes of
teaching and learning. It focuses upon how language can be used for
persuasion, control and argument, and how dialogue can act as an aid to
development. Along with some background reading and activities this
unit offers opportunities for the evaluation of some selected classroom
talk.
本单元关注于教学过程中的语言的社会及文化理解的价值。这种价值侧重于语言是如何用来说服、控制以及论证的，以及对话是如何帮助发展的。随着一些背景阅读和活动的开展，本单元为评估某些选定的课堂谈话提供了机会。
Learning Outcomes
学习成果
After studying this unit you will have:
在学完本单元之后你将：
- gained
an understanding of ways that spoken language is used to create joint
knowledge and understanding, and to pursue teaching and learning; - 对谈话用于创建联合知识与理解，以及追求教学的途径有所理解；
- considered the educational implications of some recent research on teaching and learning in face-to-face interactions;
- 考虑最近一些有关教学中面对面互动的教育问题；
- tried out some approaches to analysing the spoken language of teaching and learning.
- 尝试某些方法分析教学中的谈话。
1 Language as a tool for social action
一、语言作为社会活动的工具
1.1 Persuasion, control and argument
1.1 说服、控制及辩论
The Reading below contains examples of
interaction that you may or may not be familiar with. The book that it
comes from is concerned with how people use language in many kinds of
situations to solve problems and get things done. Before examining ways
in which teachers can help students develop their understanding and use
of spoken language, it may be useful to step outside the classroom and
consider some of the ways that language is used in everyday life as a
means for ‘getting things done’.
下面的阅读材料包含了你熟悉或不熟悉的互动示例。这本书的目的是关注人们如何在各类情况下使用语言解决问题达成目的。在检查教师帮助学生发展理解及使用口头语言的方法之前，走出教室，考虑一些语言在日常生活中作为达成目的的工具的用途，可能会有用。
In order to fully complete this unit you need to obtain Words and Minds by Neil Mercer (ISBN: 0-415-22476-4). If you would like to purchase an eBook copy please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. Customers using the coupon code MercerOU will receive a 30% discount on the published price.
为了充分完成本单元，你需要有一本内尔·墨瑟的《词语与思想》（ISBN: 0-415-22476-4）。如果你愿意购买电子版，请移步这里。使用优惠券代码MercerOU，将会在发行价的基础上获得七折优惠。Google Book 在线版本 ，缺少部分页码。
Reading
阅读材料
You should allow 1 hour(s), 0 minute(s).
你将有一个小时。
Now read Chapter 4, ‘Persuasion, control and argument’, from Words and Minds by Neil Mercer.
现在阅读内尔·墨瑟的《词语与思想》第四章《说服、控制及辩论》。
As you do, pay special attention to:
在你读的时候，请特别注意：
- the concept of ‘rhetoric’, as it is used in the chapter;
- “修辞学”这个概念在本章中的运用；
- the use of lists, contrasts and metaphors as rhetorical strategies;
- 列举、对比和比喻等修辞手法的使用；
- how rhetorical techniques can be used in exerting power and control;
- 如何将运用修辞技巧增强能力和控制；
- the three types of talk: disputational, cumulative and exploratory.
- 三种谈话方式：辩论、累加以及探索。
A widely accepted aim of education is to help
students become better at using language. This is not only the case in
modern language classrooms, or in those concerned with the English
curriculum. Studying science, mathematics and other subjects also
involves becoming able in using language as a tool for constructing and
sharing knowledge. Teachers are expected to help their students develop
ways of talking, writing and thinking which will enable them to travel
on wider intellectual journeys, understanding and being understood by
people in wider domains that those of their home community. While the
strongest emphasis in mother tongue language education has always been
on literacy, in recent years in many countries there has been an
increasing acknowledgement in educational policy and curriculum
guidance of the importance of children becoming effective users of
spoken language. For example, within the National Curriculum for
schools in England and Wales, the guidance for teaching English to Year
7 children (aged 11–12) includes the following objectives for group
discussion and interaction.
广泛认可的教育目标是帮助学生更好地运用语言。这并不是现在语言课堂唯一的任务，也不是语文课唯一操心的事情。研究科学、数学和其他学科也需要将语言作为工具构建并分享知识。教师应当协助学生发展谈话、写作和思考的能力，使得他们能够遨游在更广阔的知识海洋，在其住家社区的更多领域理解并说服人们。虽然母语教育的重中之重总是识字，近些年许多国家越来越意识到，教育政策和课程标准在儿童成为口语高效使用者方面的重要性。比如，在英格兰和威尔士中小学国家课程中，为七年级儿童（11-12岁）教授英语的课程标准针对小组讨论和互动，包括了以下目标：
Pupils should be taught to:
学生应该学会：
| 10 | identify and report the main points emerging from discussion, e.g. to agree a course of action including responsibilities and deadlines; |
| 11 | adopt a range of roles in discussion, including acting as spokesperson, and contribute in different ways such as promoting, opposing, exploring and questioning; |
| 12 | use exploratory, hypothetical and speculative talk as a way of researching ideas and expanding thinking; |
| 13 | work together logically and methodically to solve problems, make deductions, share, test and evaluate ideas; |
| 14 | acknowledge other people's views, justifying or modifying their own views in the light of what others say; |
| 10 | 确定并指出讨论中出现的要点，比如，同意一门活动课的责任及期限； |
| 11 | 在讨论中扮演一系列角色，包括担任发言者，并在赞成、反对、探究及质疑等诸多方面有所贡献； |
| 12 | 使用探究、假设和思考性谈话作为研究思路及展开思想的途径； |
| 13 | 运用逻辑有系统的解决问题，进行演绎、分享、尝试以及评估思路； |
| 14 | 承认其他人的观点，根绝别人的言论证明或修改自己的观点； |
(DfEE, 2001, p. 25)
（教育与就业部，2001, p. 25）
However, formulating a set of teaching
objectives does not address the question of how they can best be
achieved. For several years, some educational researchers (mainly in
the UK) have used the findings of observational studies to suggest that
students need more explicit guidance than they normally get on how to
talk and work together effectively in groups (e.g. Barnes and Todd,
1995; Bennett and Cass, 1989; Bennett and Dunne, 1992). Without
explicit guidance, it is suggested, group-based activity (which is a
common feature of education in some countries such as the UK), may be
of little educational value. Research on language use in homes and
communities, such as that of Shirley Brice Heath (1983) and Gordon
Wells (1992), has shown that ways of using language to make joint sense
of experience vary between cultures and communities, and so children
from different backgrounds cannot be assumed to come to school with
similar language repertoires. Yet it seems commonly to be assumed by
teachers of students of all ages, right through to higher education,
that when students are asked to go and discuss a topic together, or to
work together to solve a problem, they will have the necessary
strategies for doing so (or at least will know to use those they have
in the most effective ways). Chapter 6 of Words and Minds describes some research which has addressed this issue.
然而，制定一整套教育目标并没有解决他们如何才能做到最好这个问题。几年以来，一些教育研究者（主要是在英国）已经使用的观察研究的发现结果，表明学生需要更多明确的指导，而不是他们平时得到的，如何在团队中有效谈话以及一起工作之类的指导（如Barnes and Todd,
1995; Bennett and Cass, 1989; Bennett and Dunne, 1992）。发现指出，如果没有明确指导，基于团队的活动（在某些国家，比如英国，这很常见），可能没有多少教育价值。对于在家里和社区中使用语言的研究，比如雪莉·希斯（1983）和高登·韦尔斯（1992），显示，在不同文化和社区之间使用语言交流体验的方式，因此不能假定来自不同背景的儿童可以进入具有相同语言科目的学校。然而，似乎通常都是由教师承担所有年龄段的学生，一直到高等教育为止。当要求学生一起讨论某个课题，或者一起工作以解决某个问题，他们将会有必要的策略来完成这些事情（或者至少知道以最有效的方式使用他们手头上的方法）。《词语与思维》第六章介绍了一些解决了这个问题的研究。
1 Language as a tool for social action
一、语言作为社会活动的工具
1.2 Development through dialogue
1.2 通过对话开展工作
Reading阅读材料
You should allow 1 hour(s), 0 minute(s).
你将有一个小时时间。
Now read Chapter 6, ‘Development through dialogue’, of the set book Words and Minds. As you read, pay special attention to:
现在阅读《词语与思想》第六章《通过对话开展工作》。你在读的时候，要特别注意：
- the sociocultural concept of ‘guided participation’;
- “引导参与”的社会含义；
- the concept of ‘exploratory talk’;
- “探究式谈话”的含义；
- the ways that teacher-led and group-based activity were combined in the intervention study described.
- 以教师为主导和基于小组的学习，在文中所述干预式学习中的融合途径。
2 Evaluating classroom discussion
二、评估课堂讨论
2.1 Evaluating discussion
2.1 评估讨论
The discussion of talk amongst children in Chapter 6 of Words and Minds
is concerned with the adequacy of that talk for ‘getting things done’.
The next activity will allow you to attempt a reduced version of a
similar evaluation. It will also allow you to compare your evaluation
with that provided by one of the unit team (in comments following each
example). And, finally, it may also allow you to consider the extent to
which you feel such evaluations are valid and useful.
在《词语与思想》第六章对儿童之间交谈的探讨，关注的是，为了达成目的，有无足够的交谈。在接下来的活动，你可以尝试一个类似评估办法的精简版本。你可以将你的评估与本单元团队所做的评估（在每个范例后面的讨论材料里）做比较。并且，最后，你还可以思考这种评估的有效性的范围和作用的范围。
Activity 3 Evaluating discussions (1) (allow up to 2 hours)
活动三 评估讨论（一）（最多两个小时）
Examine the following two sequences, which are
extracts from classroom discussions involving two sets of children (all
aged 12–13). In each of the sequences, the children have been asked to
try to complete a specific task together (as is explained before each
sequence). When reading each sequence, consider the following questions:
考查一下两个序列，摘自两组学生（均介于12-13岁）的课堂讨论。在每个序列中，都要求孩子们尝试共同完成一项特定任务（如同在序列前面所解释的那样）。在阅读每个序列的时候，考虑一下问题：
- How ‘on task’ does the talk seem to be?
- 谈话时如何与任务挂钩的？
- How well does the discussion operate as a forum for sharing relevant information, evaluating ideas and reaching joint decisions?
- 在分享相关信息、评价意见以及达成统一决定方面，该讨论在多大程度上按照论坛形式运作的？
- Does
everyone in the group participate to a similar extent? If not, why do
you think this is so? Does unequal participation matter? - 小组中每个人的参与程度都相仿？如果不是，你为什么如此认为？在参与中有不平等的问题？
Compare your own answers to these questions with the evaluative comments below.
将你自己的答案与下面的评估意见作比较。
Sequence 1
序列一
This
sequence comes from the discussion of a group of four pupils (two girls
and two boys) about the causes of vandalism. Preparation for this
included reading an interview with the leader of a gang (called Ron)
who regularly engaged in such behaviour; and the children were prompted
by the question: ‘What do you think this interview tells you about the
cause of vandalism?’
该序列来自于一组四个小学生（两男两女）关于各种破坏艺术现象的讨论。为这次讨论所做的准备包括阅读一份对一位社团（人称罗恩）领导的采访，此人经常参与到这类行为当中。“你认为这次关于破坏艺术案件的采访告诉你了什么？”这个问题挑起了孩子们的话头。
At the point the extract begins, Robert has just
rejected the idea that young people engage in vandalism because they
‘aren't given enough things to do’.
在活动刚开始的时候，罗伯特反对让年轻人参与到破坏艺术活动当中这种想法，因为年轻人“都无事可做”。
Robert: Oh I, I don't, I, I think it's partly
that, but if you get some people that, really want to be vandals,
really want to smash things up just for't pleasure of it, and you get
some that an't owt better to do so they just go around smashing things
up. It's a bit daft really, in't it …?
罗伯特：哦，我，我不，我，我认为这只是一部分，但是如果你知道某些人，真的想要破坏，真的想去打碎东西，就是为了爽一下，而且你也知道有些人不愿做任何好事情，他们就是想走来走去打碎东西。这真的很白痴，是不是……？
Christine: Say summat, Margaret (whispered)
克莉丝汀：说点什么，玛格丽特（耳语）
Margaret: You an't said owt yet (whispered)
玛格丽特：你什么都还没说呢（耳语）
Christine: I've said ‘Yeah’, ‘Yeah’ (whispered)
克莉丝汀：我说了“是啊”（耳语）
Robert: Do you think Ron's any good?
罗伯特：你觉得罗恩做的对？
Christine: No.
克莉丝汀：没。
Margaret: Do you think Ron's what? (said aggressively)
玛格丽特：那你觉得罗恩怎么样？（追问）
Christine: He dun't give, he dun't give good answers.
克莉丝汀：他没有说，他没有做任何好的回答。
Robert: No, he just said that he wanted to be
‘somebody’. He could have been somebody if he worked hard couldn't he,
instead of …
罗伯特：是的，他仅仅说他想成为某人。如果他努力的话，他本来可以成为什么人，但是他没有，相反……
Margaret: (interrupting) Yeah, but not like that.
玛格丽特：（打断）不，不是这样的。
Robert: Instead of, he always wanted to make people be frightened of him.
罗伯特：相反，他总是想让人们害怕他。
（出处：Barnes and Todd, 1995, pp. 52–3）
Now read the answer
现在阅读答案
Comments on Sequence 1
关于序列一的评论
The discussion in Sequence 1 does not seem to
make much progress, nor to show much commitment on the part of the
participants. This is despite the fact that the topic of vandalism is
one on which most teenagers could be expected to have some opinion.
While Robert is clearly on task, the two other members of the group who
contribute, Margaret and Christine, seem more concerned with disputing
their partners’ claims than with developing the group's understanding
of vandalism. The talk has some of the characteristics which, in
Chapter 4 of Words and Minds, are associated with ‘disputational’ talk.
序列一中的讨论似乎没有取得多少进展，就参与者而言也没有表现出足够的决心。事实上，破坏艺术这个话题，大多数青春期少年都会有一些自己想法的。虽然罗伯特名现在关心任务，但小组另外两位成员，玛格丽特和克莉丝汀，似乎更关心反驳同伴的观点，而非促进小组对破坏艺术的认识。这场谈话具有《词语与思想》第四章列举的“争辩式”谈话相关的某些特性。
As a process for sharing ideas, evaluating them
and reaching some joint conclusion, the discussion does not seem to be
functioning well. The participants do not make similar levels of
contribution to the discussion. Robert tries to get the discussion
going, but the girls seem self-conscious (perhaps not enjoying being
recorded) and uncooperative in the face of his efforts. The fourth
member of the group does not join in at all. Robert's contributions
therefore make up most of the talk, but this seems due to the
reluctance of his partners rather than any social dominance on his
part. As a result, the only ideas which are put into the public domain
are his, and little in the way of collective thinking is apparent. Of
course, this is only part of a longer discussion. If we were the
researchers involved, we would no doubt wish to look at a much longer
sample of talk before making an evaluation.
作为一个交流、评价思想并达成某些一致结论的过程，这次讨论似乎并没有做好。参与者对讨论所做的贡献并不相等。罗伯特试图是讨论继续下去，但是两个女孩似乎有些害羞（也许是不喜欢被人记录），并且面对罗伯特的努力时不愿合作。小组第四位成员根本就没有参与进来。因此罗伯特的发言占到了谈话的大部分，但这似乎要归因于他同伴的不合作，而非他的社会地位要高一些。结果，付诸公众的惟一想法就是他的，很显然在集体思考方面简直没有。当然，这只是一次较长讨论的一小部分。如果我们是参与其中的研究者，在作出评估之前，我们无疑会希望看到一个更长的谈话示例。
(Note: these comments are based partly on those of Barnes and Todd, 1995, the researchers who recorded this discussion.)
（注意：这些意见部分基于这次讨论的研究人员巴恩斯和托德，1995，的意见。）
Sequence 2
序列二
In this sequence the two twevle-year-old girls
who speak are members of a group who have been asked to talk together
to choose a suitable set of objects for storing in a ‘time capsule’.
再次序列中，某小组成员，两个十二岁女孩，被要求通过讨论选择一套适当的物件，以便存储于时间胶囊中。
Pupil A: We've got to start selecting which ones we want now, so let's have yours.
学生甲：现在我们要开始挑选我们想要的，那么你先挑吧。
Pupil B: A Mars bar definitely … clothes … this is the sixth one now that we're going to have.
学生乙：一块火星巧克力肯定是要的……衣物……这将是我们的第六个时间胶囊。
Pupil A: Right, six … now we'll all keep the same so we send them clothes … number one.
学生甲：对，第六个……现在我们都保持不变，那么我们送他们衣物……第一件。
Pupil B: I'm only going to send them some chocolate, cos they know …
学生乙：我只打算送她们一些巧克力，因为他们知道……
Pupil A: What?
学生甲：什么？
Pupil B: They might not have things like that.
学生乙：他们可能没有巧克力之类的东西。
Pupil A: Yeah, all right then … number two.
学生甲：是啊，好吧，那么……第二件。
Pupil B: Number two … chocolate.
学生乙：第二件……巧克力。
Pupil A: Right, just a minute.
学生甲：好，还有一分钟。
Pupil B: Photos is a good idea.
学生乙：相片不错。
Pupil B: Yeah, cos then they know what you look like.
学生乙：对，因为这样他们就会知道你长什么样子。
Pupil B: Yeah.
学生乙：对。
Pupil A: Right, let's have a look at yours.
学生甲：好，现在我们来看看你选的。
(Source: Phillips, 1992, p. 153)
Now read the answer
现在阅读答案
Comments on Sequence 2
关于序列二的评论
The talk in this discussion is ‘on task’, and
the discussion seems to function quite well as a means for sharing
relevant ideas. Both children contribute about equally to the
discussion. However, there is no critical consideration of the
suitability of anyone's proposals. The process is not really one of
collective reasoning but rather simply one of accumulating items from
individuals to make up a list. In the terms used in Chapter 4 of Words and Minds, the talk is ‘cumulative’ rather than ‘exploratory’.
这次讨论的谈话没有跑题，作为交流相关想法的工具，这次讨论似乎很成功。两个孩子在讨论中的发言大致相当。然而，对于各人的提议是否适当没有认真考虑。这个过程并不是真正的集体研究，而是简单的个体累加。按照《词语与思想》第四章所说的，这次谈话是一个“累加式”而非“探究式”。
The educational researcher who recorded this discussion made the following comments about it:
记录这次讨论的教育研究者对此做出如下评论：
The pupils' reason for doing the task was, in
their own words, ‘because we were asked to discuss it’. It had no
obvious purpose beyond complying with that instruction to ‘discuss’
and, consequently, nothing much was at stake. They were prepared to
leave explanations of their choices implicit because they saw the
activity as one requiring nothing more than the completion of an
apparently arbitrary list. Indeed, why justify the choice of items to
put in a time capsule, when more rapid completion of the list can be
achieved by a kind of ‘bartering’ – one of mine for one of yours? And
why bother to ask for a ‘better’ reason in response to a ‘poor’ one
when in the end the case being put is of no real significance to you?
学生完成这次任务的理由，用他们自己的话来说，就是“因为老师要求我们讨论这个”。他们在遵从“讨论”这一指示之外，没有超越他的明显意图，正因如此，他们并不真的在乎内容。他们打算放弃对其选择背后隐含的意思作出解释，因为他们把这个活动当成不得不做的事情，就像完成随便一份什么清单一样。事实上，选择一个物品放进时间胶囊的理由，在较快速完成这份清单的时候可以通过交换的方式来完成——我一个然后你一个？在该示例最后面对一个糟糕的理由时，为什么不愿意要求一个更好的理由？因为对你没有实际意义？
It is significant that the teacher who set the
task intended the group of pupils to persuade each other ‘properly’ of
the value of the particular items they suggested for inclusion. She
hoped individuals would give well-reasoned justifications for their
proposals, and wanted the group to explore the validity of those
justifications. She was disappointed in the quality of the discussion.
值得注意的是，设置该任务的教师希望学生小组完全根据自己选择提交的具体物品的价值说服彼此。他希望小组成员在维护其提议时能给出充分的辩护理由，并且希望小组研究这些理由的有效性。他对这次讨论的质量感到失望。
2 Evaluating classroom discussion
二、评估课堂讨论
2.2 Evaluating discussion (continued)
2.2评估课堂讨论（续）
Activity 4 Evaluating discussions (2)
活动四、评估讨论（二）
You should allow 5 hour(s), 0 minute(s).
你将有五个小时。
The quality of discussion amongst students can be evaluated by carrying out the following activity.
学生间讨论的质量可以通过以下活动进行评估。
- Tape record two short (5 minute) group
discussion activities, involving two or three students and based on a
particular topic, in your own classroom or that of a teacher you know. - 录音两个短小（五分钟）小组讨论活动，两三个学生参与讨论，针对具体主题，在你班上或者某位你认识的教师班上。
- Transcribe
one or two short sections so that you can examine the talk more
carefully, using the transcription key provided below. - 抄录其中一两小节，这样你可以更仔细的检查谈话内容，你可以使用后面提供的速记符号。
- Drawing on your reading in the module so far, make your own evaluation of the discussions in terms of:
(a) what they tell you about the students’ capabilities for using language for sharing and constructing knowledge together;(b) the apparent value of the discussion for advancing the students’ understanding of the relevant topic. - 根据你到目前为止读到的模块，对此讨论在这方面做出你自己的评估：（甲）关于学生使用语言分享并共同构造知识的能力，他们告诉你了什么；（乙）关于这场讨论对于促进学生理解相关主题的明显价值，他们告诉你了什么。
Note: There are many ways of transcribing spoken language. For this activity we suggest you use the transcription key provided below.
注意：有很多方法抄录口语。在这个活动我们建议你使用下面提供的速记符号。
Transcription key
速记符号
T = Teacher
T = 教师
S1 = Student 1
S1 = 学生一
S2 = Student 2
S2 = 学生二
(S3 = Student 3)
（S3 = 学生三）
(.) = Brief pause
(.) = 短暂中断
(…) = Long pause
(...) = 长时间中断
word stressed = in bold
粗体=强调
?,.! = use conventions of punctuation to indicate sense of the spoken words (i.e. use ? to indicate question)
使用标点符号的通用含义表示词语的意义（如，用？表示问题）
[ = overlapping speech or interruptions.
【 = 重复讲话或被打断。
Do this
任务
Now you have completed this unit, you might like to:
现在你已完成本单元，你可能想要：
Post a message to the unit forum.- 去本单元论坛发表帖子。
Review or add to your Learning Journal.- 回顾或添加学习日记。
Rate this unit.- 评价本单元。
Try this
尝试
You might also like to:
你可能还想：
Find out more about the related Open University course- 找出更多相关开放大学课程
Book a FlashMeeting to talk live with other learners- 预订一份快速会议，于其他学习者实时交谈
Create a Knowledge Map to summarise this topic.- 为总结本单元创建一份知识图。
References
参考文献
Barnes, D. and Todd, F. (1995) Communication and Learning Revisited, Portsmouth, N. H., Heinemann.
Bennett, N. and Cass, A. (1989) ‘The effects of group composition on group interactive processes and pupil understanding’, British Educational Research Journal, 15, pp. 119–32.
Bennett, N. and Dunne, E. (1992) Managing Classroom Groups, London, Simon and Schuster.
DfEE (Department for Education and Employment)(2001) Key Stage 3 National Strategy: framework for teaching English: Years 7, 8 and 9, London, Department for Education and Employment.
Heath, S. B. (1983) Ways with Words: language, life and work in communities and classrooms, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Mercer, N. (1995) The Guided Construction of Knowledge: talk amongst teachers and learners, Clevedon, Multilingual Matters.
Phillips,T. (1992) ‘Why?: the neglected question’ in Norman, K. (ed.) Thinking Voices: the work of the National Oracy Project, London, Hodder and Stoughton.
Wells,G. (1992) The Meaning Makers: children learning language and using language to learn, London, Hodder and Stoughton.
Acknowledgements
致谢
The content acknowledged below is Proprietary (see terms and conditions) and is used under licence.
以下内容属于私有内容（详见条款及条件），其使用已获得授权。
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce material in this unit:
感谢以下资源准许本单元转载：
Unit Image
单元图片
Urthstripe: www.flickr.com
All other materials included in this unit are derived from content originated at the Open University.
本单元包含的其他素材均派生自开放大学原创内容。
Every effort has been made to contact
copyright owners. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the
publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the
first opportunity.
我们已尽力查找版权所有人，如果有所纰漏疏忽，出版商将乐于在第一时间作出必要的处理。
http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=2636
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